An Assessment of Fish Production at Fish Hatcheries in East Tennessee

A Research Paper Presented for the Master of Science in Agriculture and Natural Resources Degree

The University of Tennessee at Martin

Submitted by Drew McCrary May 2012

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank those who gave so much of their time to help me complete this

accomplishment in my life. I would like to acknowledge all of my professors from UT Martin.

Without them, this project would have never been possible. I would like to thank Dr. Barbara

Darroch for her assistance in the statistical portion of this project and for dealing with all of my

questions during my two year tenure at UT Martin. Every one of my professors made me realize

my potential in both school and life. Thank you for making me a part of the MSANR family.

An extremely special thanks goes to my wife, Megan McCrary for her understanding,

love, and encouragement through my graduate career.

Special acknowledgement for Jim and Vicki McCrary for being amazing parents and

always being there for me and encouraging my curiosity in life and science.

A very special thanks also goes out to Mr. Mike Smith, manager of Eagle Bend Hatchery

for his time and patience in allowing me to collect data from him.

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ABSTRACT

Fish hatcheries can be important to the survival of freshwater fish species to offset the

effects of overfishing and environmental issues affecting fish populations in lakes, rivers and

ponds. Determining effective management strategies for fish hatcheries can be a difficult and

time consuming task. This study examined data from Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN

to look at factors that affect mortality of hatchery-raised warm water fish.

Data on fish production at Eagle Bend Hatchery in 2007 to 2011 were used in this study.

Data included pond size, number of fish stocked, number of fish harvested, mortality, number of

fish per pound, and days in pond. For analysis, fish species were divided into groups: those that

were stocked in ponds after hatching and those raised from brood stock. Fish species stocked

after hatching were channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), hybrid bass (Morone chrysops x

saxatilis), muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), sauger (Sander canadensis), striped bass (Morone

saxatilis), and walleye (Sander vitreus). The fish that were raised from brood stock were black

nose crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus), blue gill (Lepomis macrochirus), largemouth bass

(Micropterus salmoides), small mouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), and white crappie

(Pomoxis annularis). SAS and Excel were used to conduct regression analyses, stepwise

multiple regressions, and chi-squared analyses to determine if there were significant

relationships among production variables. Although 11 species were produced at Eagle Bend,

only six species had enough data for multiple regression analysis: sauger, striped bass, walleye,

black nose crappie, bluegill, and largemouth bass.

Chi-squared analyses for hybrid bass, muskellunge, sauger, striped bass, and walleye

indicated that the number of fish stocked was dependent on the year. The number of fish per

pound was also dependent on the year. Chi-squared analyses also indicated that the proportion

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of fish that died for each fish species was related to year. There was also a significant (p < 0.05)

relationship between mortality rates and fish species within each year.

Stepwise multiple regressions for striped bass indicated that percent mortality depended,

in part, on stocking rate and number of fish per pound. Increased stocking rate lead to increased

mortality, but R² for the model was low (0.3970), indicating that other factors affected

mortality. There were no significant regressions for percent mortality or fish per pound in

sauger. For black nose crappie, stepwise regression analysis for fish per pound indicated that

the partial regression coefficient for days in pond was significant (p < 0.10), but the overall

model R² was very low (0.07). There were no significant stepwise regressions for blue gill or

largemouth bass. Stepwise multiple regressions for striped bass indicated that fish per pound

depended, in part, on stocking rate and mortality. Increased stocking rate led to a decrease in

the number of fish per pound. For walleye, stepwise multiple regressions indicated that percent

mortality depended, in part, on days in pond.

Although regression analyses for percent mortality of fingerlings indicated that stocking

rate was a factor for striped bass, R² values were low and other factors were likely more

important. Stocking rate was not included in stepwise regressions models for other species,

indicating that the stocking rates used at Eagle Bend Hatchery are within established rates for

maximizing production. Low R² values for all regression models indicated that other factors are

important in mortality and fish size. Such factors likely include dissolved oxygen levels and

water temperature, which were not available in this study. Continued monitoring of these and

other factors would help to improve productivity and survival of fingerlings produced at Eagle

Bend Hatchery and at other hatcheries in Tennessee.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Chapter 1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1

Tennessee Fish Hatcheries .......................................................................................................1

Erwin National Fish Hatchery ...........................................................................................2

Buffalo Springs Hatchery ..................................................................................................3

Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery .................................................................................................4

Morristown Fish Hatchery .................................................................................................5

Hatchery Employment .............................................................................................................5

Research Objectives .................................................................................................................5

Chapter 2 Literature Review ..........................................................................................................7

Fish Species ..............................................................................................................................7

Channel Catfish .................................................................................................................7

Hybrid Bass .......................................................................................................................7

Muskellunge ......................................................................................................................8

Sauger ................................................................................................................................8

Striped Bass .......................................................................................................................8

Walleye ..............................................................................................................................9

Black Nose Crappie ...........................................................................................................9

Bluegill ..............................................................................................................................9

Largemouth Bass .............................................................................................................10

Small Mouth Bass ............................................................................................................10

White Crappie ..................................................................................................................10

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Early History of Fish Hatcheries ............................................................................................11

Building and Operating a Fish Hatchery ...............................................................................11

Management and Culture Conditions for Fish Hatcheries ....................................................13

Largemouth Bass Pond Culture .......................................................................................13

Striped Bass Pond Culture ..............................................................................................14

Hybrid Bass Production ..................................................................................................15

Walleye Pond Culture ..................................................................................................... 16

Catfish Hatcheries ..........................................................................................................18

Hatchery Species Survival Rates ....................................................................................19

New Production Methods for Fish Hatcheries ........................................................................19

Predation of Hatchery Fish by Birds .....................................................................................20

Prevention and Bird Control ............................................................................................21

Interaction between Hatchery Fish and Wild Fish .................................................................22

Are Hatcheries for Endangered Fish Species the Right Answer? .........................................24

Chapter 3 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................30

Data Summary and Analysis ................................................................................................. 31

Chapter 4 Results..........................................................................................................................33

Overview of Fish Production in Morristown Warm Water Hatcheries ................................ 33

Analysis of Production at Eagle Bend Hatchery............................................... .....................33

Fish Species Stocked after Hatching ...............................................................................33

Fish Species Raised from Brood Stock ...........................................................................37

Chapter 5 Discussion ................................................................................................................... 52

Chapter 6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................55

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References .....................................................................................................................................57

Appendix A Summary of Fish Production at Morristown Fish Hatchery ....................................59

Appendix B Data Summary for Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery .........................................................61

Appendix C Summary of Multiple Regression Analyses for Fish Stocked after Hatching .........64

Appendix D Summary of Multiple Regression Analyses for Fish Raised from Brood Stock......66

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Comparison of P-values from chi-squared analysis to determine relationships among fish species, amount produced, and year ...........................................................................40 Table 2. Results of multiple regression for percent mortality of fish species stocked in ponds after hatching .....................................................................................................46 Table 3. Results of multiple regression for fish per pound of fish species stocked in ponds after hatching ...................................................................................................................46 Table 4. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis for percent mortality and number of fish per pound in striped bass ......................................................................................47 Table 5. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis for percent mortality and number of fish per pound in walleye .............................................................................................47 Table 6. Results of multiple regression for fish per pound of fish species raised from brood stock .................................................................................................................51 Table 7. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis for fish per pound of black nose crappie .................................................................................................................... 51

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Channel catfish are found throughout the southeastern United States, and are found in warm water rivers, streams, lakes, and reservoirs .....................................................26 Figure 2. Hybrid bass is a hybrid between white bass and striped bass ........................................26 Figure 3. Muskellunge are aggressive and can be cannibalistic ....................................................26 Figure 4. Sauger live in large rivers and shallow lakes in cool to warm water .............................27 Figure 5. Striped bass are very popular in the United States and are found all along the east coast ..................................................................................................................................27 Figure 6. Walleye are found in rough, murky lakes and can see well in low light ........................27 Figure 7. Black nose crappie have a black stripe on their nose from a genetic alteration of the black crappie species ...........................................................................................................28 Figure 8. Bluegill live in ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams ................................................28 Figure 9. Largemouth bass are native to Tennessee ......................................................................28 Figure 10. Small mouth bass are cool water fish living in lakes, reservoirs, streams, or rivers. ...........................................................................................................................29 Figure 11. White crappie are warm water fish that live in rivers and lakes ..................................29

Figure 12. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN ..................................................................................................39 Figure 13. Number of fish per pound produced per year for each species at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN ........................................................................39 Figure 14. Total number of fish stocked per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ................................................................................................................40 Figure 15. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ................................................................................................................41 Figure 16. Number of fish per pound produced per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ...............................................................................................41

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Figure 17. Total mortality rates per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ................................................................................................................................42 Figure 18. Percent mortality per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Hatchery in Clinton, TN ................................................................................................................................42 Figure 19. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for sauger from 2007-2011 .............................43 Figure 20. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for sauger from 2007-2011 .................................43 Figure 21. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for striped bass from 2007-2011 .....................44 Figure 22. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for striped bass from 2007-2011 .........................44 Figure 23. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for walleye from 2007-2011 ...........................45 Figure 24. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for walleye from 2007-2011 ...............................45

Figure 25. Total number of fish stocked per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ...........................................................................48 Figure 26. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ..................................................................48 Figure 27. Total number of fish per pound produced per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN ...............................................49 Figure 28. Number of fish per pound versus pond size for black nose crappie from 2007-2011 .............................................................................................................................50 Figure 29. Number of fish per pound versus pond size for largemouth bass from 2007-2011 .............................................................................................................................50

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Throughout the world, people consider fish to be an important natural resource for food

consumption. Fish are also valuable as a recreational resource for fishermen of all levels of

experience. Fish can be found in most bodies of water including creeks, rivers, man-made lakes,

and, of course, oceans. The availability of fish in some of these areas has become a major

concern in recent years. Stocking lakes and other bodies of freshwater is an important method of

providing enough fish for food and for recreational purposes. Fish hatcheries and aquaculture

centers have been built to keep areas like these fully stocked. Fish hatcheries require a lot of

work and knowledge to breed and raise large stocks of healthy fish. Having effective

management strategies can aid in proficient production methods and can provide the best

possible fish stocks for many bodies of water.

Tennessee Fish Hatcheries

Tennessee has 10 fish hatcheries located across the state. The Humboldt and Springfield

Hatcheries are located in the western part of the state and the Flintville and Normandy

Hatcheries are located in south-central Tennessee. In east Tennessee, there are five hatcheries:

Eagle Bend, Buffalo Springs, Tellico, Morristown, and Erwin Hatcheries. Half of the hatcheries

in Tennessee are warm or cool-water facilities and the other half are cold-water facilities. The

warm or cool-water facilities produce walleye (Sander vitreus), black nose crappie (Pomoxis

nigromaculatus), white crappie (Pomoxis annularis), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), channel

catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), sauger (Sander canadensis), largemouth bass (Micropterus

salmoides), small mouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), hybrid bass (Morone chrysops x

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saxatilis), muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). These fish are

put into large reservoirs, streams, and family-owned fishing areas. Cold-water facilities produce

trout (Salmoninae). The trout are stocked in streams, tailwaters, and reservoirs (TWRA, 2011). Erwin National Fish Hatchery

The fish hatcheries noted in this project include the Erwin National Fish Hatchery

(ENFH), Buffalo Springs Hatchery (BSH), Morristown Fish Hatchery (MFH), and the Eagle

Bend Fish Hatchery (EBFH). The Erwin hatchery, located in Erwin, TN, is a national cold-water

hatchery that produces rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and provides disease-free trout

eggs for state and federal hatcheries in Tennessee. The Erwin hatchery is considered a

broodstock facility. At such hatcheries, the trout are raised to maturity (2 years and up) and then

they are bred for fertilized egg production. The Erwin hatchery also keeps some of these eggs to

raise more adult trout (Fiss, 2006).

The adult fish, or “broodstock”, are kept in raceways at the hatchery. They are fed by

demand feeders, which release food when a fish strikes a wire in the water with its tail. These

feeders reduce the amount of time employees have to spend on feeding the fish as well as

reducing production costs. When the broodstock reach maturity and are ready to spawn, the eggs

are collected and placed into incubators. After about 14 days in the incubators, the eggs are sent

to hatcheries around the state and the country (USFWS, 2012). After the fish have spawned at

the hatchery, they are placed into local streams for angler enjoyment. The fish from Erwin

hatchery can be 14 to 20 inches long when released, which gives the anglers a challenge when

fishing for trout (Fiss, 2006).

The Erwin National Hatchery also provides other activities available to the public. There

is a visitor center and picnic area on the hatchery grounds as well as off-site buildings and

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activities. The Unicoi County Heritage Museum is at the hatchery and hatchery tours are given

throughout the year as well. With all the public activities that take place at the hatchery, there

are more than 40,000 visitors each year (USFWS, 2012). Finding effective ways to manage the

fish hatchery and keep public activity opportunities available is very important to the success of

this hatchery.

Buffalo Springs Hatchery

Buffalo Springs hatchery is a cold-water hatchery that produces rainbow trout; it is

located near Rutledge, TN, in Grainger County. Groundwater for the hatchery is obtained from

an artesian spring near the hatchery. The water enters the hatchery at approximately 3,500

gallons per minute. The groundwater is used in the main building as well as the raceways

outside where maturing fish are kept. In 2005, there were 16 raceways used for fish production

and 8 raceways used for waste collection (Fiss, 2006). Currently, the facility is using an effluent

holding pond for waste collection, which has kept pollution out of surrounding bodies of water

and allows for more of the raceways to be used for fish production.

Buffalo Springs receives trout eggs from the Erwin National Fish Hatchery and from

Ennis, Montana. The eggs are kept inside the hatchery building in three tray incubators. The

incubators are vertical flow-through systems and each has seven stacked trays holding the eggs.

After the fish hatch and grow to about 2 inches long, they are moved outside to the concrete

raceways where they are fed 2 to 4 times a day, depending on size, for up to 14 months. Then

the fish are shipped to Erwin State Fish Hatchery (Fiss, 2006) or the trout hatchery at Herbert

Holt Park in Gatlinburg, TN, where they are allowed to grow to full size before being used for

stocking. The Gatlinburg trout hatchery then stocks the surrounding streams and reservoirs with

these trout for anglers to enjoy (pigeonforge.com, 2012).

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The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) owns Buffalo Springs Hatchery.

The hatchery is very productive, producing 331,345 rainbow trout in 2005. They deliver fish to

neighboring cities for the stocking of streams as well as stocking local ponds. In 2005, two

hatchery trucks, which can hold 1,000 and 1,200 pounds of trout, each took 148 trips to 28

bodies of water to deliver trout. This equals about 18,300 miles in an average year for the

drivers. In addition to regular trout production and observation, the hatchery also offers other

activities in which the public can participate. Hatchery tours are open to the public, bringing in

about 500 visitors a year, educational programs on trout are offered, and fishing events are held

for children. The hatchery is also involved with law enforcement, and hunter safety programs

are given throughout the year (Fiss, 2006).

Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery

Eagle Bend Hatchery is a warm- and cool-water hatchery that produces sauger, walleye,

striped bass, largemouth bass, small mouth bass, black nosed crappie, white crappie, channel

catfish, bluegill, and muskellunge. Eagle Bend is located in Clinton, TN. This hatchery is one of

the biggest warm-water hatcheries in Tennessee. The hatchery covers 100 acres of land and has

35 ponds and one raceway. The water that is used at the hatchery is obtained from a 7 acre

storage reservoir filled with water from the Clinch River. In 2007, the hatchery used 31.9 acres

for outdoor fish production in a total of 35 ponds. Because of double and triple cropping, 44

acres of land were used for fish production. The hatchery produced 1.2 million fingerlings in

2007, including almost one million fingerlings of warm-water fish and about 230,000 cold-water

fingerlings (Henley et al., 2008). In 2008, the same acreage was used for production but only 33

ponds were used. Double and triple cropping allowed for 44.6 acres to be used for production.

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The hatchery did not need to produce any cold-water fingerlings in 2008 but there were 1.15

million warm-water fingerlings produced (Henley et al., 2009).

Morristown Fish Hatchery

Morristown Fish Hatchery is similar to the Eagle Bend hatchery. It is also a warm- and

cool-water hatchery that produces the same species of fish that Eagle Bend produces.

Morristown hatchery is located in Morristown, TN, in Hamblen County. In 2007, the hatchery

used 11.5 acres of ponds for outdoor fish production. There is also an extra 6 acres available at

the nearby Douglas reservoir because of a nursery pond on Henderson Island. In 2007,

Morristown hatchery raised 765,000 fish for stocking (Henley et al., 2008). In 2008, the same

amount of land was used for fish production and about 423,000 fish were produced. (Henley et

al., 2009).

Hatchery Employment

Warm-water hatcheries are normally run all year long and require a large employee base.

Employees must be well educated and knowledgeable to breed and raise all of the fish species

found at these hatcheries. There is always something to be done, be it stocking, basic

management needs, or fingerling research and success evaluation. Unfortunately, many

hatcheries in Tennessee are understaffed and if any employees leave, other employees must do

even more work to maintain hatchery production (Henley et al., 2008). Therefore, hatcheries

must find more effective management strategies to reduce employee workloads while producing

more fish.

Research Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine production rates of fish and to determine what

reduces productivity in fish hatcheries. Data were collected from several fish hatchery locations,

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with emphasis on Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery, with the assistance of members of the Tennessee

Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) and Mike Smith, manager of Eagle Bend Hatchery.

Specifically this research project was designed to meet the following objectives:

1. Determine the survival capability of fish species in a fish hatchery and look for factors

influencing mortality.

2. Compare stocking rate to other variables to determine optimum stocking rates.

3. Determine if other variables should be more closely monitored at a fish hatchery to allow

for better fish production.

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CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

Fish Species

The hatcheries in Tennessee produce many fish species. The fish species included in this

study were channel catfish, hybrid bass, muskellunge, sauger, striped bass, walleye, black nose

crappie, bluegill, largemouth bass, small mouth bass, and white crappie. Within hatchery ponds,

some species are stocked as fry and other species are stocked as brood fish. All species are

harvested as fingerlings to be used to stock bodies of water throughout Tennessee.

Channel Catfish

The largest catfish species in Tennessee is the channel catfish (Figure 1). Channel catfish

are one of the most widely known species in the southeast. The habitat of channel catfish

includes warm-water rivers, ponds, and reservoirs. Channel catfish are found primarily in clear

water streams but they also can live in muddy waters (TWRA, 2012). At the Eagle Bend

Hatchery, channel catfish are stocked at low stocking rates when fry are one to six inches long

(Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They are kept in the ponds for

60 to 90 days.

Hybrid Bass

Hybrid bass (Figure 2) is a hybrid between the male white bass (Morone chrysops) and

the female striped bass (Morone saxatilis). The distinguishing marks between a hybrid bass and

striped bass are the broken horizontal lines on the hybrid bass, whereas a striped bass has

unbroken lines. Hybrid bass are bred in hatcheries and they rarely reproduce in the wild. If they

do reproduce, it is with white bass. Hybrid bass can be found in cool-water rivers, lakes, and

reservoirs (Outdoor Alabama, 2008). Hybrid bass are stocked as five day old fry at the Eagle

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Bend Hatchery (Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). About 100,000

fry are stocked and kept in the ponds for 55 to 60 days.

Muskellunge

Muskellunge (Figure 3), or muskie, are ravenous predators and are very fast-growing in

Tennessee. Muskie are native to Tennessee but much of the native population has been

destroyed by impoundments. These fish have a flat nose and a lot of sharp teeth. The habitat of

muskie tend to be large rivers with cool water. Muskie can be cannibalistic and very aggressive.

In hatcheries, the mortality rate of the fry is high because of predation and cannibalism (TWRA,

2012). At Eagle Bend Hatchery, muskellunge are stocked as fry with amounts of about 25,000

for over 100 days (Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They have a

high mortality rate with only about 140 fingerlings harvested from 25,000 stocked.

Sauger

Sauger (Figure 4) are native to many parts of the United States. Their habitats include

large rivers and shallow lakes in cool to warm water (TWRA, 2012). Eagle Bend Hatchery

stocked sauger as five to eight day old fry in amounts of about 100,000 (Smith, Mike. TWRA.

Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). The fish are kept in the ponds for 20 to 40 days.

Striped Bass

Striped Bass (Figure 5) are very popular in the United Sates. They are found along the

Atlantic coast and they migrate between salt and fresh water. Striped bass are placed in larger

freshwater reservoirs for recreational purposes (NYDEC, 2012). Striped bass are stocked at

Eagle Bend Hatchery as five day old fry in amounts of about 125,000 (Smith, Mike. TWRA.

Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They are kept in the ponds for 45 to 60 days.

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Walleye

Walleye (Figure 6) are found in North America in rough, murky lakes. They are able to

reflect white light from their eyes and can see very well in low-light conditions, so they typically

feed at night. Walleye tend to live in cooler waters. They have very sharp teeth in their large

mouths. Walleye are widely sought after by anglers and commercial fishermen (TWRA, 2012).

Walleye are stocked at Eagle Bend Hatchery as seven day old fry in amounts of about 100,000

(Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They are kept in the ponds for

40 to 50 days.

Black Nose Crappie

Black nose crappie (Figure 7) are the second most popular fish in Tennessee and are

found in reservoirs. Over 2 million black nose crappie are stocked in Tennessee by the TWRA

each year. The black stripe seen on the nose of the black nose crappie is a genetic alteration

from the black crappie (SDAFS, 1999). At Eagle Bend Hatchery, about 40 brood black nose

crappie are stocked and the adult fish breed to produce fingerlings (Smith, Mike. TWRA.

Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). The fish are kept in the ponds for 200 to 240 days.

Bluegill

Bluegill (Figure 8) live in ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams. They tend to stay

among weed beds and prefer mild-temperature water. Bluegill are stocked in lakes and rivers for

recreational purposes and as food for largemouth bass (TWRA, 2012). Eagle Bend Hatchery

bluegill are stocked as brood fish with as many as 200 brood fish at one time (Smith, Mike.

TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They are kept in the ponds for 139 days and

can produce up to 190,000 fingerlings per year.

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Largemouth Bass

Largemouth Bass (Figure 9) are a very popular fish species in North America and they

are native to Tennessee. Largemouth bass thrive in small amounts of weed cover but cannot do

well in completely weed-free water. Fish hatcheries must take this into consideration when

stocking the fish into ponds (TWRA, 2012). At Eagle Bend Hatchery, 25 to 40 brood fish are

stocked in ponds for 50 to 70 days (Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal

Communication). Up to 40,000 fingerlings can be harvested each time.

Small Mouth Bass

Small mouth bass (Figure 10) are cool-water fish living in lakes, reservoirs, and streams

or rivers in North America. Small mouth bass are a popular fish among anglers. They also can

help determine if bodies of water are free of pollution because small mouth bass prefer clear

water (TWRA, 2012). At Eagle Bend Hatchery, very few brood are stocked for this species and

the fish are kept in the ponds for about 60 days (Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal

Communication).

White Crappie

White crappie (Figure 11) are warm-water fish that live mostly in rivers and lakes. They

are relatively small fish, with the biggest fish ever caught weighing only 5 pounds (TWRA,

2012). White crappie are stocked as brood fish for about 180 days at the Eagle Bend Hatchery

(Smith, Mike. TWRA. Clinton, TN. Personal Communication). They are bred in the ponds to

harvest about 10,000 fingerlings at a time.

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Early History of Fish Hatcheries

Fish hatcheries have been around since the early 1900s. In 1915, Harry Ackley took an

old cheese factory site in Rome, New York and turned it into the first fish hatchery in the United

States. Ackley was known for his trout production due to his success in raising large sizes of

trout that were stocked in public waters. In approximately 1920, additional small fish farms

were built on the property. Dr. George Reid operated one of the farms and the Rome Fish and

Game Club operated the other one. The club sold their portion of the land to the state in 1930 for

construction of a state fish hatchery. The facility grew and by 1932, Dr. Reid’s portion was also

bought by the state, which allowed for the development of what is now the Rome Fish Hatchery

(Ernst and Lewthwaite, 2011).

Building and Operating a Fish Hatchery

Development and construction of a fish hatchery requires special planning and

considerations for efficient operation. Hatcheries can be very expensive to operate and they

must be monitored to ensure proper fish production. The building and upkeep of a fish hatchery

is also important. To have an economically effective hatchery, management must minimize

production costs and maximize fish survival rates. Often, smaller hatcheries must be built to be

economically efficient. Special attention should then be given to the size of fish stocked and the

time of year that will lead to the best survival of the fish (TWRA, 2011).

Monitoring factors that could affect fish survival must be done at all times. This includes

monitoring such things as availability of food, quality of the water, and fertility of the fish.

During the production years of a fish hatchery, construction and maintenance are ongoing.

Electrical work and plumbing will need to be done as well as any maintenance on the ponds and

12

tank systems. Fish hatcheries require dedicated employees that will provide the best possible

environment and equipment for producing the best possible fish stock (TWRA, 2011).

Fish hatchery tanks and ponds must be monitored on a regular basis. If not, fish mortality

rates may increase and there may be no fish harvested at all from a severely damaged pond.

Hatchery employees should keep weekly, if not daily, records of water quality factors and other

production factors. Careful monitoring and record-keeping in hatcheries can prevent diseases

and increase the health of the fish (BCFMP, 2003) The water quality factors that should be

monitored include dissolved oxygen and pH levels, water recirculation methods, waste

management and effluent storage areas, temperature, and source, amount, and type of food given

to the fish. For the best possible fish production rates, hatcheries should determine how each

species of fish needs to be stocked and bred. The water quality factors will be different for each

species and the factors must be monitored accordingly. Past production methods and records

should be evaluated each year to determine factors that led to effective fish production. To

address any problems that the fish hatchery may be having, experiments can be conducted to

determine what needs to be changed (Brewer and Rees, 1990). Records should always be kept at

fish hatcheries to maximize production rates.

The Rome Fish Hatchery in New York provides an example of standard practices for fish

hatcheries. The Rome Fish Hatchery is a cold-water hatchery that raises brook trout (Salvelinus

fontinalis) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). This hatchery provides stock for over 350 public

water areas throughout New York. The eggs come to the hatchery each fall from other

hatcheries and are incubated in a hatch house using screen baskets. The eggs hatch after 50 days,

producing sac fry. These emergents have a yoke sac that provides nourishment for 10 to 14

days. Then the fry are moved to rearing units in the hatch house and fed a dry diet 6 to 8 times

13

per day by hand. The fish are then moved to a larger area called a “raceway”. Here, the fish are

fed by trucks specially made for the feeding. They can also be fed by a “demand feeder” where

the fish will knock a rod in the water that will then automatically release the food. Waste is

cleaned from the raceways and troughs daily. The health of the fish is also monitored daily to

make sure the fish are healthy and growing appropriately (Ernst and Lewthwaite, 2011). The

way that the trout are raised at the Rome Hatchery is very similar to production methods used at

many of the hatcheries in Tennessee.

Management and Culture Conditions for Fish Hatcheries

Largemouth Bass Pond Culture

Proper stocking techniques for largemouth bass are important to ensure the best possible

production results. Largemouth bass are stocked as brood fish and spawn in the hatchery ponds

to produce fingerlings for harvesting. Hatcheries should obtain their brood fish from local areas

such as from other hatcheries or from wild sources. Largemouth bass that are used from the wild

are good for spawning during the first year at a hatchery but they are not as reliable as brood fish

from other hatcheries that have been sufficiently fed in ponds (Davis and Lock, 1997).

While in the ponds, largemouth bass must be fed baitfish at a rate of about seven pounds

of live baitfish per pound of bass body weight to maintain fish at their current size. Ten pounds

of baitfish per pound of body weight should be fed if growth of bass is needed. If baitfish are not

used, pellet feed may be used by feeding at least one percent of the bass body weight daily.

Typical baitfish used at hatcheries include carp, tilapia, goldfish, and bluegill. Goldfish and carp

tend to carry diseases and anchorworm; tilapia does not typically carry parasites but they are not

14

available during the spring and winter months. Bluegill are an excellent choice as a continuous

baitfish feed for largemouth bass (Davis and Lock, 1997).

Stocking largemouth bass brood fish depends on how the fingerlings will be used: will

they be sold directly from ponds or moved to other ponds for continuous growth? Ten to forty

brood fish can be stocked per acre to produce 20,000 to 50,000 fingerlings. When a hatchery

stocks the brood fish in this amount, it requires less labor, fewer resources, and less technical

expertise. Brood fish are kept in the ponds until the fingerlings are harvested, which can lead to

adult predation of the fingerlings. If there are any late spawned fry, the older fingerlings will eat

these fish as well. To maximize fingerling production, fry should be moved to a rearing pond

after they reach 0.5 to 0.75 inches long. Once the fry or fingerlings are removed from the

spawning pond, the brood fish are returned to their holding ponds (Davis and Lock, 1997).

Striped Bass Pond Culture

Striped bass are stocked as fry in rearing ponds until they reach fingerling age. Like

many other fish species, striped bass have defined survival requirements that hatcheries must

follow. At five-days old, striped bass fry can survive in temperatures ranging from 55 to 75°F.

Anything above or below this range is detrimental to survival rate. The best temperatures for

striped bass fry are between 64 and 68°F. Once they reach fingerling age, striped bass can

survive in waters at temperatures as high as 80°F; however at warmer temperatures, the chance

of disease increases. Light can also have an effect on survival of striped bass fry. Black plastic

can be used to line ponds to provide shading for the fish. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is another

variable that can affect fish survival rate. For striped bass, the ideal DO level is above 6 ppm

(parts per million). If DO drops below this level, an increase in biochemical oxygen demand

15

(BOD) occurs. Hatcheries should measure the DO level right before sunrise several times a

week (Brewer and Rees, 1990). Documentation should be kept for future reference.

Stocking of striped bass fry takes place when they are five to ten days old. Stocking rates

range from 100,000 to 250,000 fry per acre. Stocking rate depends on the size of fingerlings the

hatchery wants to produce. One of the best production rates came from the state hatchery in

Marion, Alabama in 1985. They stocked 150,000 nine day old fry per acre and harvested about

80,000 fingerlings per acre with about 850 fish per pound. Average survival rates of a typical

hatchery pond are between 25 and 40 percent. Stocking is best done after sunset or before

sunrise because direct sunlight can damage the fry (Brewer and Rees, 1990).

When harvesting striped bass fingerlings, precautions must be taken to reduce stress for

the fish. Striped bass are prone to shock so handling should be brief and done in water as much

as possible. Other causes of stress are loud or sudden noises and bright lighting or heat. If stress

has occurred, hatcheries may add salt to holding tanks to relieve stress (Brewer and Rees, 1990).

Hybrid Bass Production

Hybrid bass are also stocked as fry and kept in rearing ponds until they reach fingerling

status. Studies have shown that the way fry are stocked determines the survival rate of the

fingerlings. If fry are unhealthy and were not cared for during and after shipment, then they

should not be stocked. The water chemistry in the rearing ponds must be close to that of the

water in which the fry were shipped. Stocking rates of fry can be between 100,000 to 200,000

per acre. If the stocking rate is in the lower end of this range, a larger number of fingerlings may

be produced; however fingerling size will vary, which leads to cannibalism. Larger stocking

rates can lead to smaller fingerlings and a quicker depletion of zooplankton (Ludwig, 2004).

16

Hybrid bass fry are fed ample amounts of zooplankton for the beginning of the rearing

stage until the fish are able to eat prepared feed. When there are a lot of fry in the pond, the

zooplankton will be eaten quickly and the fry could turn to cannibalism if there is not enough

food. Supplemental feeders should be used so that zooplankton can be replenished and

fingerlings can become prepared for pond or tank culture. For the first three weeks in the ponds,

fry should be fed about two to ten pounds of starter meal per acre, one to three times a day. The

variation depends on the feeding behavior of the fish, which can be determined after a few days

by seeing how much feed is left on the surface (Ludwig, 2004).

After 30 to 45 days in the ponds, hybrid bass fingerlings should be harvested. Any time

after this, cannibalism will begin to cause significant loss of fingerlings. During harvest,

precautions must be taken when handling fingerlings to avoid stressing or killing the fish. If the

fingerlings are stressed, they will curl due to tetanized muscles. Stressed fished are more

susceptible to diseases in their lifetime. Fingerlings can be kept stress-free with proper amounts

of dissolved oxygen, prevention of temperature and chemical shocks, and proper handling of the

fingerlings. After weighing the fish and doing calculations to determine the harvest rate, hybrid

bass survival rates can be determined. An experienced hatchery averages about 25 to 40 percent

survival rate (Ludwig, 2004).

Walleye Pond Culture

Walleye is another species of fish that are stocked as fry and raised in ponds until

fingerling age. Walleye have become one of the best fish species to be raised in a hatchery

because they are able to keep maximum growth at lower temperatures than most other species.

Walleye fingerlings grow best at temperatures between 69 and 72°F. Average length for

optimum growth of fingerlings is 30 to 55 days depending on water temperature. Walleye

17

fingerlings are produced as one to three inch fingerlings and stocked in public and private lakes

and fish farms. Unlike hybrid bass, which are stocked as fry, walleye have better production

rates when they are stocked as small fingerlings and kept in the ponds for additional growth

(Harding et al., 1992).

Walleye are considered strike feeders because they depend on their vision to catch prey.

In the beginning, the fry eat small zooplankton. As the fry get older, they begin to eat insect

larvae and other larger prey. Walleye can be cannibalistic and will begin to eat each other when

the fish are only a half inch in length. One of the most effective methods of walleye fingerling

culture is by using drainable earthen ponds. Average pond size should be one to five acres and

four to ten feet deep. Ponds that are not drainable may also be used but they must be checked to

make sure there are no other fish in the pond that could eat the walleye fingerlings (Harding et

al., 1992).

Stocking rates of walleye depend on the levels of production that the hatchery needs. On

the conservative side, 20,000 to 30,000 fry per acre-foot should be stocked. For experienced

hatcheries, up to 50,000 fry per acre-foot can be stocked. The higher the stocking number, the

more competition for food will occur, producing smaller fish. With a lower stocking number,

competition will be reduced and larger fish will be produced.

Walleye fingerlings should be harvested after four to eight weeks in the pond. When the

fish get to be 1.5 to 2 inches in length, they should be removed from the pond to prevent

cannibalism unless there is an adequate amount of food in the pond. As with other fish species,

stress during harvesting can be detrimental to walleye. Hatcheries must be careful to prevent

over-handling and crowding, low dissolved oxygen levels, high ammonia levels, or high

18

temperatures. Walleye should not be harvested when the water temperature is above 75°F or

below 70°F (Harding et al., 1992).

Catfish Hatcheries

Catfish hatcheries are a type of warm-water fish hatchery found in the United States.

Lately, farm-raised catfish facilities have been struggling to stay open due to cheaper imported

catfish and a rise in feed and production costs. The Mississippi Delta has seen a decline in

catfish hatcheries from 30 facilities to about 12. One facility still left is Needmore Fisheries

which produces catfish stock. This hatchery is using a new form of equipment designed by

research scientist Les Torrans. The new equipment is a “see-saw egg incubator” that Torrans

believes will provide help for a struggling industry. Catfish eggs need higher amounts of

dissolved oxygen levels (5 mg/l or higher in the water) than other fish species to have a good

hatching rate (Wurts, 2012). The see-saw motion of the incubator provides better water

circulation and increases the amount of dissolved oxygen. Twice as many eggs are hatched

using this incubator and small amounts of energy are needed to run the equipment (Guy, 2010).

Channel catfish may also be stocked in hatcheries as fry and raised in ponds until

fingerling age is reached. Channel catfish have the best growth rate at temperatures of 85°F.

The appetite of a catfish will increase with an increase in temperature and decrease if there is a

drop in temperature. The feed of channel catfish generally comes from the bottom of ponds but

they will eat at the surface occasionally. Young channel catfish primarily eat aquatic insects.

They can detect their food by using taste buds located on the entire surface of the fish. The

quality of water for channel catfish is important in hatchery settings. Dissolved oxygen levels

become lethal at about 1.0 ppm. When DO becomes less than 4.0 ppm, growth reduction is

observed (Wellborn, 1988).

19

Hatchery Species Survival Rates

Channel catfish survival rates for production of fingerlings from fry in ponds ranges

from 40 to 85% (UFL, 2009). Hybrid bass survival rates tend to be between 25 and 40 percent

for experienced hatcheries (Ludwig, 2004). Survival rates for striped bass fingerlings is between

25 and 40 percent (Brewer and Rees, 1990). Muskellunge survival rates seem to be extremely

low due to cannibalism (TWRA, 2012).

New Production Methods for Fish Hatcheries

Another type of production method being studied for fish hatcheries is the development

of a recirculating system for water. This system was designed by an Agriculture Research

Service (ARS) scientist in Stuttgart, Arkansas (Durham, 2010). The system gives hatchery

owners the opportunity to produce cool or cold-water fish in tanks that recirculate water right on

the property. Water-recirculating systems require less water than most systems and they also

catch waste from the fish. This allows the managers to move their sites away from larger bodies

of water and possibly closer to areas where they stock fish. Transportation costs are cut and

income is increased because of faster delivery of the product to the consumer (Durham, 2010).

Some fish species, like trout, require extremely clean water to grow. The ARS team has

developed their water-recirculating systems to allow for fish like trout to thrive. They have

added measures that monitor waste removal, water quality, and bio-security so that hatcheries

can still use these systems with fish species like trout. Water-recirculating systems are also

effective because they avoid pollution by treating waste and keep fish from escaping from fish

farms. The system also keeps out fish pathogens, which reduces or eliminates the use of

antibiotic treatments for the fish (Durham, 2010).

20

Predation of Hatchery Fish by Birds

To maximize fish production, hatcheries must look at more issues surrounding the

hatchery. Proper management of equipment and sufficient production methods are important but

the environment in which the hatchery is located must also be monitored. Throughout the United

States, fish hatcheries have experienced problems with birds injuring and even destroying fish.

On October 24, 1919, the Secretary of Agriculture, D.F. Houston, passed an order that allowed

an owner, manager, or employee of a fish hatchery to legally trap or kill certain bird species

found on the land or water area of a hatchery (Houston, 1920).

The primary bird predators of fish include great blue heron, black-crowned night heron,

green-backed heron, common grackle, mallard, belted kingfisher, and osprey. The great blue

heron has been known to cause the most damage to the hatchery industry. They are most

problematic in the northeastern United States. Great blue heron come around hatcheries at dawn

and dusk. They can eat about two live trout (9 inch length) per hour. At warm-water hatcheries,

the herons consume smaller fish but can eat 0.5 pounds of fish per day on average. Black-

crowned night herons are more prevalent in western hatcheries, appearing at dusk and feeding

through the night. This type of heron can eat about one live trout (up to of 7.5 inches in length)

per hour (USDA, 1997).

The common grackle (largest member of the blackbird family) is seen frequently at

northeastern hatcheries during spring months. They typically feed on fingerlings less than five

inches long. Once the fish get bigger than this, the birds will leave the fish alone. Grackles tend

to eat about three trout per hour. They have rarely been seen at warm-water hatcheries and when

they are, they have not been known to eat any fish (USDA, 1997).

21

Mallards appear at many northeastern hatcheries but they tend to have low predation

issues. When they have been seen feeding on fish, the fish are normally four inches long and the

mallard eats approximately four fish per hour. Mostly, mallards are seen eating vegetation and

fish feed. The belted kingfisher is another type of bird seen in the northeast. It is one of the

lower impact birds because of infrequent occurrences at hatcheries. The osprey, however, is the

most efficient predator; consuming large valuable fish in the spring and fall months. Osprey also

are found mainly in the northeastern United States. They consume two fish per hour that average

lengths up to 12 inches and as long as 24 inches (USDA, 1997).

Prevention and Bird Control

New laws have been created since the Houston order was put into place. These laws

have made the order of 1920 invalid. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act has prevented the trapping

and shooting of specific birds. Environmentalists have stated that some control practices are

inhumane and they now request to be a part of the planning process when hatcheries determine

how they will protect their stock from predatory birds (Parkhurst, 1994). Birds not only harm

and kill fish, but they bring diseases and contaminants to ponds that could affect production

rates. Hatcheries need to have prevention methods in place to control the predation on their fish

stock by birds (USDA, 1997).

Some hatcheries have changed the design of their ponds to make it harder for birds to get

the fish out of the water. Ponds are deeper and banks are steeper, so birds must dive in or stand

on the banks to get fish. Hatcheries can also wait until fingerlings are longer before bringing

them outside or use temporary covers over outdoor ponds to keep grackles away. Surface

feeding of fish and low dissolved oxygen levels bring fish to the top of the water making them

22

more susceptible to bird attacks. Careful management by the hatchery can prevent these issues

from occurring and keep predators away (USDA, 1997).

Other protective measurements include completely covering ponds using overhead wire

systems, and perimeter fencing and netting. These can be expensive, and hatcheries must be able

to install and maintain these structures so the protective barriers can continue to keep birds out.

Frightening the birds is another way that hatcheries have reduced predation. Pyrotechnic

devices, alarms, strobe lights, water-spray devices, and scarecrows have been known to keep

birds away from the ponds. Dogs and "patrol officers" are also effective for scaring birds away

(USDA, 1997). Hatcheries must decide which method will work best for them and put them into

place quickly to keep their fish stock at an appropriate level.

Interactions between Hatchery Fish and Wild Fish

Fish hatcheries are built to provide species of fish to the surrounding bodies of water,

which may lack wild fish due to overfishing or other human-related issues. This has brought

about a concern for the interaction between the hatchery-bred fish and the wild fish in the

streams or lakes. Effective management strategies of a hatchery must include the end use of the

fish and must consider if placing hatchery fish in the wild will further endanger the natural stock

of fish in lakes or streams. Interaction problems have been observed between hatchery salmon

(Salmonidae) and wild salmon. Most hatchery fish have a reproductive disadvantage when

placed in an area with wild fish. Hatchery fish, like salmon, are bred through artificial means;

therefore the fish do not have any natural, sexual experience in the breeding cycle and in the

selection of mates (Fleming and Gross, 1993).

23

Fleming and Gross (1993) observed the ability of hatchery fish to reproduce when forced

to compete with wild fish. The study showed that competition among the female fish led to a

delay in breeding for hatchery fish. Hatchery females had longer life-spans, but with the delay in

breeding, they were not able to release all of their eggs. Hatchery females seemed to be more

submissive to wild females and wild females were more aggressive and chased hatchery females

more than other wild females. The aggressive qualities of the hatchery and wild males, however,

were much more intense than those of the females. The hatchery males did not fight as often as

the wild males and they were also chased more than wild males. Life spans and breeding were

not significantly different between hatchery and wild males but with the hatchery males being

less aggressive and more submissive than the wild males, the wild males were the more

dominant of the two (Fleming and Gross, 1993).

The second question answered was if the competitive differences between the hatchery

and wild fish affected breeding success. Hatchery females had a larger amount of unspawned

eggs compared to wild females The breeding success of the two groups was significantly

different, with hatchery females producing 0 to 3,487 eggs compared to the 1,087 to 3,716 eggs

produced by wild females. Hatchery males also experienced breeding problems because of their

less aggressive behavior. The hatchery males were considered to be in the alpha position for

courting less often than wild males. They also spawned less than the wild males. The eggs that

were fertilized by the males also differed, with hatchery males fertilizing only 0 to 10,101 eggs

compared to the 95 to 13,955 eggs fertilized by the wild males (Fleming and Gross, 1993).

Therefore, there is evidence that because of competitive ability, or lack thereof, hatchery males

have a breeding disadvantage.

24

The next question is, which sex is affected more: the males or the females? The males

experienced more suffering and were at a greater disadvantage in breeding than were the

females. The hatchery males were also less successful in breeding compared to the hatchery

females (Fleming and Gross, 1993). The results from this study can help hatchery managers

determine better production methods and determine where fish should be released. If the fish are

being bred to restore a native habitat, the competitive difference between hatchery and wild fish

may actually reduce the effectiveness of rebuilding the population. If the goal is to restore a

population, then primarily hatchery females should be introduced to the wild (Fleming and

Gross, 1993). The best way to revive a declining fish population is by determining what actually

caused it to decline and fixing that issue. Hatcheries can aid in this by providing an area for

“genetic conservation” to rehabilitate exhausted fish populations (Meffe, 1992).

Are Hatcheries for Endangered Fish Species the Right Answer?

Many areas throughout the United States have witnessed a decline in natural fish stocks

due to overharvesting, production of hydroelectric power, diversion of water for farm use, and

pollution of lakes and streams. Instead of fixing these problems or addressing them to save a

dying fish population, businesses have been created to mask the issue (Meffe, 1992). One such

business is a fish hatchery. Not all fish hatcheries are a bad idea, and most of them, especially

the ones here in Tennessee, are primarily used for restocking streams and lakes to provide for

recreational opportunities for local fishermen. However, salmon hatcheries, such as some along

the Pacific coast, are used to help rebuild fish populations that have been declining due to

specific reasons (Meffe, 1992). The fish and eggs are produced and released into the

environment to rebuild the population, but the environment can be unstable for the reproduction,

25

survival, and migration of salmon species found in that area. If the issues causing the

deterioration of the area are not resolved, then putting hatchery fish into the waters may actually

hasten the decline of the fish to the point of extinction (Meffe, 1992).

Fish hatcheries can be beneficial to an area depending on what type of fish are bred and

how the fish are used in the environment. Hatcheries can be very expensive to operate and if the

fish are used strictly for restocking a declining population, the cost could be put towards fixing

the bigger problem at hand. Hatcheries use a lot of energy and labor. The biggest question is

will the hatcheries be around for many years to come to continue providing fish to depleted

stocks (Meffe, 1992).

All fish hatcheries have different purposes and they all need different management

strategies to produce the right fish for the right reason. In Tennessee, the fish hatcheries provide

a stock of fish to surrounding lakes and streams primarily for recreational anglers. Therefore, the

management techniques of the hatcheries will be much different from ones on the west coast

where they are breeding specifically for salmon restoration. Deciding the final use of fish must

be the first management strategy so that the rest of the hatchery is able to operate effectively and

efficiently. Learning and applying other management techniques like the ones found in these

articles can help determine the best way to run a fish hatchery. By looking at other fish

hatcheries in the United States, we can determine what, if anything, needs to change in

Tennessee hatcheries.

26

Figure 1. Channel catfish are found throughout the southeastern United States, and are found in warm water rivers, streams, lakes, and reservoirs. (from: http://www.nwk.usace.army.mil/harryst/gif/channelcat.jpg)

Figure 2. Hybrid bass is a hybrid between white bass and striped bass. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hybrid_Striped_Bass.jpg)

Figure 3. Muskellunge are aggressive and can be cannibalistic. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Esox_masquinongyeditcrop.jpg)

27

Figure 4. Sauger live in large rivers and shallow lakes in cool to warm water. (from: http://images.fws.gov/default.cfm?fuseaction=records.display&CFID=3837830&CFTOKEN=34984212&id=A760263B%2D2AEE%2D4D89%2D94ED4D38B681F151USFWS)

Figure 5. Striped bass are very popular in the United States and are found all along the east coast. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Striped_Bass.jpg)

Figure 6. Walleye are found in rough, murky lakes and can see well in low light. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sander_vitreus.jpg)

28

Figure 7. Black nose crappie have a black stripe on their nose from a genetic alteration of the black crappie species. (from: http://myfwc.com/research/freshwater/sport-fishes/black-crappie/stocking-blacknose-crappie/)

Figure 8. Bluegill live in ponds, lakes, and Figure 9. Largemouth bass are native slow-moving streams. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/ to Tennessee. wiki/File:Lepomis_macrochirus_photo.jpg) (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Caught_largemouth_bass.jpg)

29

Figure 10. Small mouth bass are cool water fish living in lakes, reservoirs, streams, or rivers. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smallmouth_bass.png)

Figure 11. White crappie are warm water fish that live in rivers and lakes. (from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_Crappie.jpg)

30

Chapter 3

Materials and Methods

To determine effective management strategies for fish hatcheries, data were collected

from the Eagle Bend and Morristown warm-water fish hatcheries in east Tennessee. Production

data were gathered for 2007 through 2011 using data notebooks kept at Eagle Bend Fish

Hatchery in Clinton, TN. Hatchery summary books were used to gather information on pond

size and on improvements made and needed at Eagle Bend Hatchery (Henley et al., 2008 and

Henley et al., 2009). These books were also used to gather limited information (number of

fingerlings harvested, pond sizes, days in ponds, and number of fish per pound) about the

Morristown warm-water fish hatchery in east Tennessee. Other warm-water hatcheries are in

west Tennessee and were not included in this study.

The data from the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery for 2007 through 2011 were entered into

Excel for analysis. Fish species were divided into two groups: those that were stocked in ponds

after hatching and those raised from brood stock. Fish stocked after hatching included channel

catfish, hybrid bass, muskellunge, sauger, striped bass, and walleye. The fish were stocked at fry

age and reared in the ponds for fingerling production. The fish raised from brood stock included

black nose crappie, bluegill, largemouth bass, and white crappie. These fish were stocked at

brood age and reproduced within the ponds, therefore mortality rates could not be calculated for

this group. The following characteristics were entered in Excel spreadsheets:

Year of production

Species produced

Size of ponds (acres)

Total number of fish stocked by species

31

Stocking rate (number of fish per acre)

Number of fish harvested

Mortality number (not included for second group)

Mortality (percent of number of fish stocked; not included for second group)

Number of fish per pound

Total weight harvested (pounds per pond)

How many days the fish were kept in the ponds

Temperature at which the ponds were kept (some ponds did not have any

temperatures recorded)

The number of fish harvested was later used to calculate information on mortality, which

was then compared to other variables to determine what, if any, variables affected mortality.

Mortality numbers were found by subtracting the number of fish harvested from the number of

fish stocked. The percent mortality was determined by dividing the mortality number by the

number of fish stocked multiplied by 100. The number of fish per pound was calculated by

dividing the total weight harvested for each pond by the total number of fish harvested for each

pond.

Data Summary and Analysis

Excel was used to summarize the data and to create graphs and tables. The spreadsheets

included data from the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery and were tabulated by species for each year

from 2007 to 2011. Excel was used to conduct chi-squared analyses to determine if significant

relationships existed between year and mortality rates, year and number of fish stocked, and

between year and number of fish per pound within each fish species. In addition, chi-squared

32

tests were used to look at the relationship between mortality rates and fish species within each

year. There were no chi-squared analyses done for the fish species without mortality rates.

Different fish hatcheries were not compared in this study because some hatcheries are

bigger and must produce a large number of fish per year where other hatcheries only need to

produce small amounts. Instead, different years for a single hatchery (Eagle Bend Fish

Hatchery) were studied.

Linear, multiple, and stepwise regression analyses were performed for each species.

These analyses were performed in Excel to look at the response of mortality to stocking rate and

the response of fish per pound to stocking rate. Multiple regressions were performed in Excel to

find significant relationships between mortality rate versus stocking rate, pond size, fish per

pound, or days in pond. Multiple regression analyses were also conducted to look for variables

which affected the number of fish per pound.

Stepwise regression analyses were performed in SAS for fish with mortality rates to find

significant relationships for mortality percent versus stock rate, pond size, fish per pound, or

days in pond. Stepwise regressions were also performed to find significant relationships for fish

per pound versus stock rate, pond size, mortality, or days in pond. For fish species without

mortality rates, stepwise regressions examined relationships for fish per pound versus stock rate,

pond size, or days in pond. In stepwise regression, only variables that met a minimum

significance level of 0.15 were included in the regression model.

33

Chapter 4

Results

Overview of Fish Production in Morristown Warm Water Hatchery

At the Morristown fish hatchery in Morristown TN, walleye, sauger, striped bass, and

black nose crappie were produced in both 2007 and 2008 (Figure 12). In both years, walleye

were produced in the largest numbers, followed by striped bass. The largest fingerlings (fewest

fish per pound) produced at Morristown were black nose crappie fingerlings, followed by striped

bass fingerlings (Figure 13).

Analysis of Production at Eagle Bend Hatchery

Fish Species Stocked after Hatching

Figure 14 shows the total number of fish stocked at Eagle Bend hatchery for all species

from 2007-2011. The number of fish stocked each time depended on the number of fish the

hatchery intended to produce that year. Species with zero for number stocked were ones that the

hatchery did not need to grow in that year. In all years, striped bass had the highest stocking

number, followed by walleye (Figure 14). Sauger was stocked every year, but in fewer numbers

than striped bass or walleye. Channel catfish, hybrid bass, and muskellunge were stocked

depending on the need for that specific year.

Chi-squared analysis showed that there was a significant relationship (P ≤ 0.0001)

between year and the number of fish stocked for each species for hybrid bass, muskellunge,

sauger, striped bass, and walleye (Table 1). This is due to the fact that each year, the hatchery

had to stock a certain number of fish so that they could provide the right amount to other

34

hatcheries, streams, and reservoirs throughout the state. Some years, the hatchery did not have to

produce as many as other years.

In all years of the study, the number of fish harvested was the highest for walleye,

followed by striped bass (Figure 15). Numbers were similar across years, with the exception of

2011, when approximately twice as many walleye were harvested compared to other years. The

total number of fish per pound for all species showed similar trends across all years of the study

(Figure 16). The higher this number, the smaller the average weight of the fish. Chi-squared

analysis showed that there was a significant relationship (P ≤ 0.0001) between year and number

of fish per pound for each species for hybrid bass, muskellunge, sauger, striped bass, and walleye

(Table 1).

In all years, striped bass had the largest number of fish that died (Figure 17), due in large

part to their high stocking rates (Figure 14). When mortality was calculated as a percent of

stocking rate, however, the percent mortality for striped bass was similar to other species (Figure

18).

Chi-squared analysis showed that there was a significant (P ≤ 0.0001) relationship

between year and the proportion of fish that died for hybrid bass, sauger, striped bass, and

walleye. There was no significant relationship for muskellunge (P-value = 0.4959). This could

be due to the fact that muskie are cannibalistic fish and they had a high percentage of mortality

every year. There were not enough data available for channel catfish to do a chi-squared

analysis.

Chi-squared analysis showed that there was a significant (P ≤ 0.0001) relationship

between mortality rates and fish species within each year for hybrid bass, muskellunge, sauger,

striped bass, and walleye (Table 1). Walleye had the lowest percent mortality of the species

35

produced at Eagle Bend, and it likely contributed, in large part, to the observed significant chi-

squared analyses.

Simple linear regression was used to examine the relationship between percent mortality

and stocking rate and between number of fish per pound and stocking rate. Data for only sauger,

striped bass, and walleye were used for the regression analysis. For channel catfish, hybrid bass,

and muskellunge there were not enough data points for analysis.

The linear regression for percent mortality versus stocking rate of sauger was not

significant (P = 0.3807; Figure 19). In addition, the regression of fish per pound versus stocking

rate for sauger was not significant (P = 0.6732; Figure 20). Stocking rate does not appear to

influence percent mortality or number of fish per pound in sauger. Other variables that were not

included in this research could have influenced these factors. These variables could include the

pond temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, weather conditions, and predatory birds.

For striped bass there was a significant (P = 0.0277) linear regression between percent

mortality and stocking rate (Figure 21). The trendline shows that the higher the stocking rate of

striped bass, the higher the percent mortality. However, the R-squared value for this regression

was very low (0.088) indicating that other factors were involved. An effective management

strategy for striped bass would be to reduce the number of fish stocked per pond at one time.

The hatchery may be able to produce more striped bass if the ponds were stocked with

approximately 100,000 fry. The linear regression for fish per pound versus stocking rate of

striped bass was not significant (P = 0.3696; Figure 22).

For walleye, the mortality percent versus stocking rate regression was not significant (P =

0.8265; Figure 23). The fish per pound versus stocking rate regression for walleye was also not

36

significant (P = 0.2285; Figure 24). Again, other factors not included in the data were probably

more important.

Table 2 summarizes the results of multiple regression analysis to determine if percent

mortality was related to stocking rate, pond size, fish per pound, and/or days in pond. Table 3

summarizes the results from multiple regression analysis to determine if fish per pound was

related to stocking rate, pond size, mortality, or days in pond.

For sauger, there were no significant variables in the multiple regression model and no

variables met the 0.1500 significance level for entering into the stepwise regression model (Table

2). Similarly, there were no significant variables in the multiple regression model for fish per

pound and no variables met the 0.1500 significance level for the stepwise regression model in

sauger (Table 3).

For striped bass, the multiple regression model for percent mortality indicated two

significant variables: stocking rate (P = 0.0015) and number of fish per pound (P <0.0001; Table

2). Stepwise regression indicated that the same two variables were necessary for the reduced

model (Table 4). Based on parameter estimates, an increase in stocking rate increased the

percent mortality for striped bass and a decrease in the number of fish per pound (larger fish)

also increased the percent mortality for striped bass. It is difficult to determine whether the fish

became larger as a result of increased mortality, or whether larger fish led to increased

cannibalism, and therefore higher mortality rates. Also for striped bass, significant multiple

regression coefficients were found for fish per pound versus stocking rate (P = 0.0141) and

mortality (P <0.0001; Table 3). Stepwise multiple regression results were similar (Table 4). As

stocking rate increased, the number of fish per pound decreased. However, as percent mortality

increased, so did the number of fish per pound. This is the opposite of the results for stepwise

37

regression on percent mortality. Perhaps these variable are related to other variables not

included in the regression analyses.

For walleye, the multiple regression model for percent mortality showed that only days in

pond was significant (P = 0.0133; Table 2). The reduced model also included only days in pond

(Table 5). This means that the longer the fish were kept in the pond, the higher the percent

mortality was. For walleye, there were no significant variables in the multiple regression model

for fish per pound (Table 3) but stepwise regression analysis showed that percent mortality was

related to number of fish per pound (Table 5). As expected, the fish were larger (fewer per

pound) when mortality rate increased. Summaries of all multiple regression models with

parameter estimates can be found in Appendix C.

Fish Species Raised from Brood Stock

Figure 25 shows the total number of fish stocked for all species raised from brood stock

at Eagle Bend Hatchery in 2007-2011. Data points that were zero were in years when the fish

hatchery had no need to stock those fish species. For the fish species in this group, a number of

brood fish were put into each pond and allowed to lay eggs to produce fingerlings. The number

of brood stock was determined by how many fingerlings were needed. In this group of fish

species, the total number of fish harvested was greatest for black nose crappie, followed by

bluegill in all years except 2011, when no bluegill were stocked (Figure 26). The total number

of fish per pound was highest (smallest fish) for black nose crappie in all years except 2011,

when largemouth bass had more fish per pound (Figure 27).

Simple linear regression was used to examine the relationship between number of fish per

pound and pond size. For fish species raised from brood stock, only black nosed crappie and

largemouth bass had enough data for the regression analysis. Small mouth bass and white

38

crappie did not have enough data points to be analyzed. Bluegill did not have any variability in

pond size.

Figure 28 shows the fish per pound versus pond size scatter plot for black nose crappie

from 2007-2011. The regression was not significant (P = 0.2883). Therefore, fish per pound of

black nose crappie did not depend on pond size. It is likely that the number of fish per pound is

more directly related to number of fry that were hatched, but there was no way to count the

hatchlings.

Figure 29 shows the fish per pound versus pond size scatter plot for largemouth bass

from 2007-2011. The regression was not significant (P = 0.1727). Therefore, fish per pound in

largemouth bass did not depend on the pond size. Again, other variables were likely to be more

important.

For fish species raised from brood stock multiple regression analysis was used to look for

variables that affected the number of fish per pond. For black nose crappie, the multiple

regression model showed that the number of days in pond had a significant (P = 0.0907) effect

on number of fish per pound (Table 6). Based on parameter estimates from stepwise regression,

an increase in the number of days the fish were kept in the pond decreased the number of fish per

pound (Table 7). This would be expected as the fish would continue to grow and would increase

in size over time. For blue gill and largemouth bass, there were no significant variables found

for the multiple regression analysis or stepwise regression analyses for number fish per pound

(Table 6). Summaries of multiple regression analysis with parameter estimates, can be found in

Appendix D.

39

Figure 12. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Figure 13. Number of fish per pound produced per year for each species at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

40

Figure 14. Total number of fish stocked per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

Table 1. Comparison of P-values from chi-squared analysis to determine relationships among fish species, amount produced, and year.

P-Value

Relationships

Hybrid Bass

Muskie

Sauger

Striped Bass

Walleye

1. Relationship between year and proportion of fish that died for each species

< 0.0001

0.4959

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

2. Relationship between year and number of fish stocked for each species

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

3. Relationship between year and number of fish per pound for each species

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

4. Relationship between mortality rates and fish species for each year

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

< 0.0001

41

Figure 15. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

Figure 16. Number of fish per pound produced per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

42

Figure 17. Total mortality rates per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

Figure 18. Percent mortality per year for each species at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN. There was a significant relationship (P < 0.0001) between year and mortality percentage within the following species: hybrid bass, sauger, striped bass, and walleye. There was no significant relationship between year and mortality percentage within muskellunge (P = 0.4959). There were not enough data for channel catfish.

43

Figure 19. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for sauger from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.3807).

Figure 20. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for sauger from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.6732).

44

Figure 21. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for striped bass from 2007-2011. Linear regression was significant (P = 0.0277).

Figure 22. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for striped bass from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.3696).

45

Figure 23. Mortality percent versus stocking rate for walleye from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.8265).

Figure 24. Fish per pound versus stocking rate for walleye from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.2285).

46

Table 2. Results of multiple regression for percent mortality of fish species stocked in ponds after hatching.

1 No variables met the 0.15 significance level for entering into the stepwise multiple regression model. Table 3. Results of multiple regression for fish per pound of fish species stocked in ponds after hatching.

1 No variables met the 0.15 significance level for entering into the stepwise multiple regression model.

Probability Values for Coefficients Fish Species Stock Rate Pond Size Fish Per Pound Days in Pond

Sauger1 0.3212 0.8374 0.2196 0.9447 Striped Bass 0.0015 0.5801 <0.0001 0.7815 Walleye 0.4263 0.3735 0.1498 0.0133

Probability Values for Coefficients Fish Species Stock Rate Pond Size Mortality Days in Pond

Sauger1 0.4604 0.7305 0.2196 0.7808 Striped Bass 0.0141 0.7302 <0.0001 0.2263 Walleye 0.2237 0.4284 0.1498 0.5074

47

Table 4. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis for percent mortality and number of fish per pound in striped bass.

Dependent Variable Independent Variables Parameter Estimate

Pr > F R2 for the

Model

Percent mortality Intercept 83.72 < 0.0001 0.3970

Stocking rate 0.0001 <0.0001

Number of fish per pound -0.0354 0.0015

Number of fish per pound Intercept 956.94 < 0.0001 0.3340

Percent mortality 0.0013 0.0141

Stocking rate -9.1672 < 0.0001

Table 5. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis for percent mortality and number of fish per pound in walleye.

Dependent Variable Independent Variables Parameter Estimate

Pr > F R2 for the

Model

Percent mortality Intercept -41.312 0.4980 0.0721

Days in Pond 1.578 0.0133

Number of fish per pound Intercept 1143.7 < 0.0001 0.1315

Percent mortality -6.013 < 0.0001

48

Figure 25. Total number of fish stocked per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

Figure 26. Total number of fish harvested per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

49

Figure 27. Total number of fish per pound produced per year for each species raised from brood stock at the Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery in Clinton, TN.

50

Figure 28. Number of fish per pound versus pond size for black nose crappie from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.2883).

Figure 29. Number of fish per pound versus pond size for largemouth bass from 2007-2011. Linear regression was not significant (P = 0.1727).

51

Table 6. Results of multiple regressions for fish per pound of fish species raised from brood stock.

1No variables met the 0.15 significance level for entering into the stepwise multiple regression model.

Table 7. Results of stepwise multiple regression analysis of fish per pound for black nose crappie.

Dependent Variable Independent Variables Parameter Estimate

Pr > F R2 for the

Model

Number of fish per pound Intercept 657.33 0.0120 0.0674

Days in Pond -1.8982 0.0907

Probability Values of Coefficients

Fish Species Stock Rate Pond Size Days in Pond

Black Nose Crappie 0.9394 0.8929 0.0907

Blue Gill1 0.5879 n/a 0.6518

Large Mouth Bass1 0.8838 0.3916 0.6383

52

Chapter 5

Discussion

By examining production data, effective management strategies can be designed so that

specific fish hatcheries are able to run efficiently. Each individual fish hatchery must be looked

at separately so that the best management strategies can be applied to that specific hatchery.

Ideas may be shared between hatcheries but final production methods must be tailored for each

hatchery.

By comparing the data results from Eagle Bend Hatchery to other similar hatcheries,

Eagle Bend can determine if the production rates are comparable to other hatcheries. If so, the

hatchery manager will be able to determine what will be the best production methods for the

hatchery and decide on any changes or improvements that need to be made. Average percent

mortality for channel catfish raised in ponds is 15 to 60 percent (40-85% survival) (UFL, 2009).

At Eagle Bend, there was 65% mortality in 2008 and 80% mortality in 2010. These percentages

are relatively high compared to previous results. By finding out what Eagle Bend does

differently, perhaps changes could be made to improve survival rate.

The average percent mortality for hybrid bass is 60 to 75 percent (25-40% survival)

(Ludwig, 2004). At Eagle Bend, the percent mortality for 2009 was 75%. Even though the

percentage is high, Eagle Bend is comparable to other hatcheries in the survival rate for hybrid

bass. Finding ways to improve this rate is the next step for the hatchery.

The average percent mortality for striped bass is 60 to 70 percent (25-40% survival) as

well (Brewer and Rees, 1990). At Eagle Bend, the percent mortality from 2007 to 2011 was

between 80 and 85 percent. This is relatively high compared to the average mortality rate.

53

Issues with ponds and stocking during those years most likely resulted in such a high mortality

percentage. Eagle Bend must take these into consideration to improve production rates.

Muskellunge mortality rates tend to be high due to cannibalism (TWRA, 2012). For

Eagle Bend, there was a 99% mortality in 2008 and a 98% mortality in 2009. Muskie are not

great species for fish hatcheries, therefore finding effective production methods based for

muskellunge is necessary. Sauger mortality percent was between 70 and 80 percent from 2007

to 2011 at Eagle Bend. This is relatively high considering that sauger are closely related to

walleye and walleye percent mortality was 30 to 60 percent during the same time period. For

further improvements to production rates at Eagle Bend Hatchery, information about changes,

improvements, and pond issues must be studied.

Stocking methods at Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery may also need to be examined to

determine effective management strategies. By seeing how something affected the fish

production, strategies can be formulated for the next harvest and a better production number will

be produced. In 2007, a striped bass pond was originally stocked with 50,000 fingerlings but

suffered a complete loss of fish. This loss contributed to the relatively high mortality rate

(83.3%) for striped bass in 2007. The pond had to be restocked 24 days later with 35,000

fingerlings. The reason for this complete loss was a dissolved oxygen level of 0.4 ppm; striped

bass need dissolved oxygen levels of at least 6.0 ppm (Brewer and Rees, 1990). Another pond

also experienced almost complete loss due to low dissolved oxygen levels of 0.1-2.0 ppm. An

effective management strategy would be to keep a record of dissolved oxygen levels of all ponds

so that the fish are able to thrive. In 2007, a black nose crappie pond also had production

problems after local residents were seen stocking the pond with bass. The bass overrode and

dominated the crappie. No crappie were harvested from the pond but approximately 25,000

54

largemouth bass were. An effective management strategy would be to keep the hatchery closed

to the public during non-operational hours. If the public is allowed in, hatchery employees must

be with them or have them in sight at all times.

In 2009, two striped bass ponds had production problems. One pond had no striped bass

harvested because of some leftover walleye from a previous harvest. An effective management

strategy would be to make sure all ponds are clear and free from any other fish, predators, or

diseases. The other pond that was affected in 2009 had a negative variance of 74,970 (i.e. more

fish were harvested than were stocked in the pond. Unfortunately, there was no records to

indicate why this occurred. Another effective management strategy, and probably the most

important, is for hatchery employees to keep as many records as possible and to make notes on

any negative effects that could influence fish productivity. This will help hatcheries be better

prepared for many years.

Some data were not available in the record books used in this study. Many ponds had no

temperature records and in some years, temperature was not recorded at all. This could be a very

important variable to look at when trying to determine what affects fish mortality or fish per

pound. Each species has specific temperature requirements. Another set of data that was

missing was specific dissolved oxygen levels for all ponds. Like temperature, monitoring

dissolved oxygen could be an effective way of improving production. Two other types of data

were not included, but these are very difficult to record and refer more to pond protection rather

than production. Weather conditions and predatory birds could have a big effect on the

production numbers of fish. By using nets or other types of protection over the ponds, fish

hatcheries can reduce loss of fish to predator birds.

55

Chapter 6

Conclusion

In conclusion, finding out why production rates vary will help hatcheries produce more

eggs and fish. In this study, different fish species had varying levels of mortality rates. Stocking

rate had little effect on mortality of most fish species, within the rates used. The size of the pond

did not have an effect on the amount of fish per pound for any of the species (for the pond sizes

used). For most multiple regressions, the mortality rates did not depend on any of the given

variables. Collecting data on variables that were not available in this study could be beneficial

for determining effective production methods. Variables such as water temperature and

dissolved oxygen levels can affect fish survival and growth, but data on these variables were not

part of the data set used in this study.

Finding effective management strategies for fish hatcheries can help new and existing

hatcheries produce more fish for stocking. Other hatcheries and the public would be able to take

advantage of the additional stock. Depleted fish species could be restocked with additional

amounts from hatcheries, and streams and reservoirs would be filled with better quality fish.

Local anglers would will be able to enjoy a better sport, and anglers from around the country will

want to come and experience the fishing in Tennessee.

By comparing variables, like the ones studied in this research, to fingerling production,

hatchery managers can determine why variances in fish production numbers exist. Then they

can look at what happened that year, if and how it affected the numbers, and what they can do

next year to increase the production of fish. Also, hatchery managers can evaluate production

methods at other hatcheries to determine methods to maximize fish production. All the

56

hatcheries in Tennessee must work together to find out what works for each hatchery so that they

can all provide each other and the public with the stocks that are needed.

57

References

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British Columbia Fish Management Plan (BCFMP). 2003. Required elements of a Fish Health

Management Plan for public and commercial fish culture facilities in British Columbia. June 2003. http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/ahc/fish_health/fhmp_Required_Elements_June-03.pdf. Accessed: April 27, 2012.

Davis, James T. and Joe T. Lock. 1997. Culture of largemouth bass fingerlings. Southern

Regional Aquaculture Center. October 1997: 201: 1-4. Durham, S. 2010. Recirculating water helps aquaculture. Agricultural Research. October 2010:

4-6. Ernst, J. and B. Lewthwaite. 2011. Still raising after all these years: DEC’s Rome Fish Hatchery.

New York State Conservationist. August 2011: 7-9. Fiss, F. 2006. Tennessee trout hatchery report-2005. July 2006. TWRA Fisheries Report No. 06-

07. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency Fisheries Management Division. 24. Fleming, I.A. and M.R. Gross. 1993. Breeding success of hatchery and wild Coho Salmon

(Oncorhynchus kisutch) in competition. Ecological Applications. May 1993: 3.2: 230-245.

Guy, C. 2010. A better way to hatch catfish eggs. Agricultural Research. October 2010: 7. Harding, L. M., C. P. Clouse, R. C. Summerfelt, and J. E. Morris. 1992. Pond culture of walleye

fingerlings. North Central Regional Aquaculture Center. Fact Sheet Series. March 1992: 102: 1-4.

Henley, H., L. Mason, B. Robertson, D. Roddy, M. Smith, and G. Scholten. 2008. Warmwater

fish production: statewide hatchery report 2007. June 2008. TWRA Fisheries Report No. 08-08. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency Fisheries Management Division. 53-79.

Henley, H., L. Mason, B. Robertson, D. Roddy, M. Smith, and G. Scholten. 2009. Warmwater

fish production: statewide hatchery report 2008. February 2009. TWRA Fisheries Report No. 09-02. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency Fisheries Management Division. 42-66.

Houston, D.F. 1920. Order permitting the killing or trapping of certain birds, at fish hatcheries,

found to be injurious to valuable fish life. The Wilson Bulletin. June 1920: 32.2: 61-62. Ludwig, Gerald M. 2004. Hybrid striped bass: fingerling production in ponds. Southern Regional

Aquaculture Center. January 2004: 302: 1-7.

58

Meffe, G.K. 1992. Techno-Arrogance and halfway techniques: Salmon hatcheries on the Pacific

coast of North America. Conservation Biology. September 1992: 6.3: 350-354. New York Department of Environmental Conservation (NYDEC). 2012. Striped Bass.

http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/50070.html. Accessed: April 30, 2012. Outdoor Alabama. 2008. Hybrid Bass.

http://www.outdooralabama.com/fishing/freshwater/fish/bassstriped/hybrid/. Accessed: April 30, 2012.

Parkhurst, James A. 1994. An overview of avian predation and management techniques at fish-

rearing facilities. Proceedings of the Sixteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference. February 1994: 46: 235-242.

Pigeon Forge.com. 2012. Trout Fishing in Gatlinburg. http://www.pigeonforge.com/Things-To-

Do/Smoky-Mountains/Activities/Fishing/Trout-Fishing-in-Gatlinburg. Accessed: May 1, 2012.

Southern Division of the American Fisheries Society (SDAFS). 1999. Black Nose Crappie.

http://www.sdafs.org/meetings/99sdafs/stockreg/church1.htm. Accessed: April 27, 2012. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA). 2011. Fish Hatchery System.

http://www.tn.gov/twra/fish/hatchery/hatchery_sys.html. Accessed: Dec 15 2011. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA). 2012. The angler's guide to Tennessee fish

including aquatic nuisance species. January 2012. 328898: 1-68 http://www.tn.gov/twra/pdfs/anglersguide.pdf. Accessed: May 3, 2012.

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1997. Bird Predation and Its Control at

Aquaculture Facilities in the Northeastern United States. June 1997. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ws/birdpred.html#intro. Accessed: April30, 2012.

United States Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2012. Erwin National Fish Hatchery.

http://www.fws.gov/erwin/index.html. Accessed: February 28, 2012. University of Florida IFAS Extension (UFL). 2009. Farm-Raised Channel Catfish.

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/fa010. Accessed: April 30, 2012. Wellborn, Thomas L. 1988. Channel catfish: life history and biology. Southern Regional

Aquaculture Center. December 1988: 180: 1-4. Wurts, William A. 2012. Guidelines for producing food-size channel catfish. World Aquaculture.

23: 70-72. http://www.ca.uky.edu/wkrec/guidelinesforproducingfoodsizechannel catfish.htm. Accessed: May 1, 2012.

59

Appendix A

Summary of Fish Production at Morristown Fish Hatchery

Table A.1. Production numbers for Walleye in 2007 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN. Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 1 58,561 1.5 34 1,865 7 94,490 1.0 41 1,100 8 67,591 1.25 41 1,315 Total 220,642 3.75 116 4,280 Table A.2. Production numbers for Walleye in 2008 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 6 40,828 2.0 38 1,180 7 59,007 1.0 35 890 8 63,764 1.25 35 760 Total 163,599 4.25 108 2,830 Table A.3. Production numbers for Sauger in 2007 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN. Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 2 54,337 2.0 42 1,252 3 1,200 1.1 23 1,200 4 13,073 0.9 28 644 Total 68,610 4.0 93 3,096 Table A.4. Production numbers for Sauger in 2008 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 1 47,451 1.5 36 595 3 3,200 1.1 36 800 4 0 0.9 29 0 Total 50,651 3.5 101 1,395

60

Table A.5. Production numbers for Striped Bass in 2007 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN. Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 1 86,765 1.5 42 518 2 56,165 2.0 47 182 3 36,031 1.1 49 197 4 17,444 0.9 55 98 Total 196,405 5.5 193 995

Table A.6. Production numbers for Striped Bass in 2008 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 1 0 1.5 43 0 3 8,956 1.1 49 114 4 3,137 0.9 55 124 6 27,886 2.0 56 216 7 55,117 1.0 50 256 8 23,352 1.3 50 240 Total 118,448 7.75 303 950

Table A.7. Production numbers for Black Nose Crappie in 2007 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size

(acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound 5 81,599 2.0 178 219 6 57,558 2.0 187 128 Total 139,157 4.0 365 347

Table A.8. Production numbers for Black Nose Crappie in 2008 at the Morristown Fish Hatchery in Morristown, TN.

Pond Name # Harvested Pond Size (acres) Days in Pond # of Fish per Pound

5 83,023 2.0 183 468

61

Appendix B

Data Summary for Eagle Bend Fish Hatchery

Table B.1. Total number of fish stocked at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species from 2007-2011

Year Channel Catfish Hybrid Bass Muskellunge Sauger Striped Bass Walleye

2007 0 0 0 380,000 1,285,000 625,600

2008 37,500 0 81,919 300,000 1,075,000 500,000

2009 0 350,000 0 150,000 1,100,000 575,000

2010 10,000 0 10,030 225,000 1,350,000 600,000 2011 0 110,000 0 300,000 1,200,000 950,000

Table B.2. Total number of fish harvested at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species from 2007-2011

Year Channel Catfish Hybrid Bass Muskellunge Sauger Striped Bass Walleye

2007 0 0 0 99,301 214,986 249,266 2008 12,200 0 408 100,878 234,178 294,542 2009 0 90,884 0 44,981 197,010 279,826 2010 2,000 0 122 33,725 171,622 331,100 2011 0 115,643 0 72,840 172,207 660,714

Table B.3. Total number of fish per pound at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species from 2007-2011

Year Channel Catfish Hybrid Bass Muskellunge Sauger Striped Bass Walleye 2007 0 0 0 2,866 3,034 5,840 2008 29 0 25 3,830 3,833 6,484 2009 0 2,394 0 1,396 3,702 8,504 2010 2 0 n/a 1,832 2,919 7,961 2011 0 1,710 0 1,608 5,060 13,232

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Table B.4. Total mortality rates at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species from 2007-2011

Year Channel Catfish Hybrid Bass Muskellunge Sauger Striped Bass Walleye 2007 0 0 0 280,669 1,070,014 376,334 2008 25,300 0 81,511 199,122 840,822 205,458 2009 0 259,116 0 105,019 902,990 295,174 2010 8,000 0 9,908 191,275 1,178,378 268,900 2011 0 -5,643 0 227,160 1,027,793 289,286

Table B.5. Percent mortality of fish at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species from 2007-2011 Year Channel Catfish Hybrid Bass Muskellunge Sauger Striped Bass Walleye 2007 0 0 0 73.9 83.3 61.2 2008 67.5 0 99.5 66.4 78.2 41.1 2009 0 74.1 0 70.0 82.1 51.3 2010 80.0 0 98.8 85.0 87.3 44.8 2011 0 -5.1 0 75.7 85.6 30.5

Table B.6. Total number of fish stocked at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species raised from brood stock from 2007-2011

Year Black Nose Crappie Bluegill Large Mouth Bass White Crappie

2007 330 400 26 0

2008 452 75 25 56

2009 453 250 22 0

2010 542 200 39 0

2011 300 0 40 0 Table B.7. Total number of fish harvested at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species raised from brood stock from 2007-2011

Year Black Nose Crappie Bluegill Large Mouth Bass White Crappie

2007 166,824 188,470 5,954 0

2008 190,211 265,528 3,444 19,046

2009 334,603 362,004 32,400 0

2010 459,433 182,800 46,550 0

2011 171,410 0 7,500 0

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Table B.8. Total number of fish per pound at Eagle Bend Hatchery for each species raised from brood stock from 2007-2011

Year Black Nose Crappie Blue Gill Large Mouth Bass White Crappie

2007 1,301 345 345 0

2008 1,693 827 1,148 370

2009 3,687 776 1,200 0

2010 3,484 400 1,960 0

2011 1,052 0 1,500 0

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Appendix C

Summary of Multiple Regression Analyses for Fish Stocked after Hatching

Table C.1. Summary of percent mortality multiple regression results for sauger at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.6252.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 66.0958 0.0614 -0.0960 Stock Rate 0.0002 0.3212 Pond Size 2.7324 0.8374 Fish per Pound -0.0170 0.2196 Days in Pond 0.0966 0.9447

Table C.2. Summary of percent mortality multiple regression results for striped bass at Eagle Bend Hatchery The Pr > F for the full model was < 0.0001.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 75.3368 < 0.0001 0.3488 Stock Rate 0.0001 0.0138 Pond Size 2.8043 0.5801 Fish per Pound -0.0336 < 0.0001 Days in Pond 0.0442 0.7815

Table C.3. Summary of percent mortality stepwise regression results for walleye at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.0721.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept -41.3115 0.4301 0.1556 Stock Rate 0.0003 0.4263 Pond Size 14.1000 0.3735 Fish per Pound -0.0125 0.1498 Days in Pond 1.5779 0.0202

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Table C.4. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for sauger at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.7374.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 1246.418 0.1075 -0.1543 Stock Rate 0.003 0.4604 Pond Size 95.252 0.7305 Mortality -7.842 0.2196 Days in Pond -8.303 0.7808

Table C.5. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for striped bass at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.0002.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 1038.713 < 0.0001 0.3062 Stock Rate 0.002 0.0646 Pond Size -8.579 < 0.0001 Mortality 27.955 0.7302 Days in Pond -3.061 0.2263

Table C.6. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for walleye at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.4136.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 0.675 0.9995 0.0029 Stock Rate 0.010 0.2237 Pond Size 275.378 0.4284 Mortality -6.013 0.1498 Days in Pond 10.335 0.5074

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Appendix D

Summary of Multiple Regression Analyses for Fish Raised from Brood Stock

Table D.1. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for black nose crappie at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.4196.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 657.328 0.0269 -0.0026 Stock Rate -0.058 0.9394 Pond Size 9.267 0.8929 Days in Pond -1.898 0.1055

Table D.2. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for bluegill at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.6222.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept 1983.689 0.4752 -0.1615 Stock Rate -1.914 0.5879 Pond Size 0 n/a Days in Pond -9.292 0.6518

Table D.3. Summary of fish per pound multiple regression results for largemouth bass at Eagle Bend Hatchery. The Pr > F for the full model was 0.5194.

Variables Parameter Estimates P Value Adjusted R-squared

for Model Intercept -2334.430 0.4704 0.2921 Stock Rate 5.925 0.8838 Pond Size 1988.806 0.3916 Days in Pond 32.845 0.6383