Alternative FuelsGuidebookc

Properties, Storage, Dispensing,and Vehicle Facility Modifications

Richard L. Bechtold, P.E.

OAAINTERNATIONAL

Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.Warrendale, Pa.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Copyright 1997 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.400 Commonwealth DriveWarrendale, PA 15096-0001U.S.A.Phone: (412) 776-4841; Fax: (412) 776-5760http://www.sae.org

ISBN 0-7680-0052-1

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use ofspecific clients, is granted by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copy-right Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directlyto CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests should be addressedto the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0052-1/97 $.50.

SAE Order No. R-180

Bechtold, Richard L., 1952-Alternative fuels guidebook: properties, storage, dispensing, and

vehicle facility modifications / Richard L. Bechtold.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-7680-0052-1 (hardcover)1. Internal combustion engines, Spark ignition--Alternate fuels.

I. Title.TP343.B37 1997662'.6--dc2l 97-27727

CIP

Preface

I have been fortunate to be involved with alternative fuels for vehicles over thepast 20 years. During that time, alternative fuels have evolved from experimentsconducted in research laboratories to use by the public. I have personally beeninvolved with vehicle modification to use alternative fuels, and more recently,design and installation of alternative fuel refueling facilities and modification ofexisting garages for safe storage and maintenance of alternative fuel vehicles.This experience includes underground and above-ground methanol refueling sys-tems, compressed natural gas refueling systems, the Maryland Mass TransitAdministration liquefied natural gas transit bus refueling system, and the GreaterRichmond Transit Company electric bus recharging facility. The informationherein includes the fundamentals that I have found to be essential to understand-ing the physical and chemical properties of alternative fuels and how they impactrefueling system design and modifications of existing garages for safety purposes.As such, it is a combination of reference and general guide for engineers and fleetmanagers whose job is to implement alternative fuel vehicles.

R.L. BechtoldApril 1997

iii

Table of Contents

Introduction .................................... 1

Chapter One-Alternative Fuels and Their Origins....................................S 5The Alcohols ....................................5

Methanol ....................................6Production ....................................7Vehicle Emissions Characteristics ...................9.................9Vehicle Performance Impacts ............... ..................... 11

Ethanol.................................... 13Production.................................... 14Vehicle Emissions Characteristics.................................... 16Vehicle Performance Impacts ............... ..................... 17

Natural Gas .................................... 18Production ............................ 19Vehicle Emissions Characteristics............................ 20

Light-Duty Vehicles ............................ 21Heavy-Duty Vehicles ............................ 22

Vehicle Performance Characteristics .......... .................. 23Light-Duty Vehicles ............................ 23Heavy-Duty Vehicles ............................ 23

LPGas ............................ 24Production ............................ 25Vehicle Emissions Charactenstics............................ 25

Light-Duty Vehicles ............................ 26Heavy-Duty Vehicles ............................ 27

Vehicle Performance Characteristics............................ 27Light-Duty Vehicles ............................ 27Heavy-Duty Vehicles ............................ 28

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Alternative Fuels Guidebook

Vegetable Oils .................................. 29Production .................................. 30

Vehicle Emissions Characteristics .................. ................ 30Vehicle Performance Characteristics .................................. 31

Hydrogen.................................. 32Production .................................. 33

Vehicle Emissions Characteristics ................. ................. 33Vehicle Performance Characteristics .................................. 33

Sources of Additional Information .......... ........................ 34References .................................. 39

Chapter Two-Properties and Specifications . ................................ 43The Alcohols .................................. 47

Methanol ................................... 47Ethanol .................................. 52M85 and E85........... 56

NaturalGas ........... 59Compressed Natural Gas ............................. 62Liquefied Natural Gas ............................ 64

LPGas ............................ 65Vegetable Oils ............................ 68Hydrogen ............................ 71Sources of Additional Information ............................ 74References ............................ 75

Chapter Three-Materials Compatibility .......... .. ................ 79The Alcohols ............................. 80

Methanol ............................. 80Ethanol ............................ 83

Natural Gas ............................ 84Compressed Natural Gas ............................ 85Liquefied Natural Gas ............................ 86

LPGas ... 87Vegetable Oils ........ 89Hydrogen........ 90References ........ 91

vi

Table of Contents

Chapter Four-Storage and Dispensing ........................... 93The Alcohols ............................ 97

Methanol........................... 97Tanks ........................... 98Piping ............................100Dispensers ............................100Miscellaneous Components........................... 102Leak Detection Systems........................... 102Fire Suppression Systems........................... 103Lightning Protection ........................... 103

Ethanol ........................... 103Tanks ........................... 104Piping ........................... 105Dispensers ........................... 105Leak Detection Systems........................... 107Fire Suppression Systems........................... 107Lightning Protection ........................... 107

Natural Gas ............................ 107Compressed Natural Gas ........................... 108

Compressors........................... 109Storage ........................... 110Piping ............................ 111Dispensers ........................... 112Control Systems ........................... 113Leak Detection Systems ........................... 113Fire Suppression Systems ........................... 114Lightning Protection ........................... 114

Liquefied Natural Gas ........................... 115Storage ........................... 116Piping ........................... 117Dispensers ........................... 118Control Systems ........................... 119Leak Detection Systems........................... 120Fire Suppression Systems........................... 120Lightning Protection ........................... 121LNG-to-CNG Systems ........................... 121

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Alternative Fuels Guidebook

LP Gas ....................... 122Storage....................... 123Piping ........................ 124Dispensers ....................... 124Control Systems....................... 125Leak Detection Systems ....................... 125Fire Suppression Systems....................... 125Lightning Protection....................... 126

Vegetable Oils ....................... 126Storage....................... 126Piping....................... 126Dispensers ....................... 127Control Systems........................ 127Leak Detection Systems ....................... 127Fire Suppression Systems ....................... 128Lightning Protection ....................... 128

Hydrogen....................... 128Storage....................... 129Piping....................... 129Dispensers ....................... 129Control Systems....................... 130Leak Detection Systems ....................... 130Fire Suppression Systems....................... 130

Sources of Additional Information ....................... 131References.................... 134

Chapter Five-Refueling Facility Installation andGarage Facility Modifications ....................... 137

Building Codes....................... 137The Alcohols ....................... 139

Location of Storage Tanks........................ 140Above-Ground Tanks ....................... 140Underground Tanks ....................... 141

Location and Installation of Fuel Dispensers ............................... 141Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities ............................... 141Fire Protection............................... 141

Iviii

Table of Contents

Natural Gas ......................................... 142Compressed Natural Gas ............ ............................. 142

Location of Storage Tanks ................. ........................ 142Location and Installation of Fuel Dispensers ............................. 143Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities ............................... 144Fire Protection ......................................... 150

Liquefied Natural Gas ......................................... 150Location of Storage Tanks ................. ........................ 151Location and Installation of Fuel Dispensers ............................. 152Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities ............................... 153Fire Protection ......................................... 154

LP Gas ......................................... 154Location of Storage Tanks ............. ............................ 154Location and Installation of Fuel Dispensers .................................... 155Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities ..................................... 155Fire Protection......................................... 156

Vegetable Oils ......................................... 156Location of Storage Tanks ............. ............................ 156Location and Installation of Fuel Dispensers .................................... 156Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities ..................................... 156Fire Protection......................................... 157

Hydrogen......................................... 157Electricity ......................................... 157

Sizing of Charger Service ............ ............................. 158Location of Chargers ......................................... 159Vehicle Charging Facilities......................................... 159Fire Protection......................................... 161

Sources of Additional Information ................. ........................ 161References......................................... 168

Chapter Six-Glossary of Terms ......................................... 171

Index .......................................... 181

About the Author .......................................... 203

ix

Introduction

The term "alternative fuel" has been used to describe any fuel suggested for usein transportation vehicles other than gasoline or diesel fuel. In many ways, thecurrent situation regarding fuels for transportation vehicles resembles the time inthe early 1900s when vehicle buyers could choose among internal-combustion,steam, or electric vehicles. During this period, there were great debates aboutwhich fuels were best-even Henry Ford envisioned many of today's concernsabout fuel availability and the environment by investigating the use of ethanol asa renewable, home-grown fuel whose production would benefit agriculture. Thewide availability of inexpensive gasoline as a by-product of kerosene refining(for lighting purposes) was surely a large factor in the subsequent success of theinternal-combustion engine in transportation vehicles. Both steam and electricvehicles had characteristics much desired by consumers at the time such as lownoise and good driveability. However, drawbacks such as lengthy start-up timeand complexity of operation (steam vehicles) and short driving range (electrics)conspired to limit their appeal. With the advent of the electric starter, internal-combustion-engine vehicles achieved a combination ofeconomy, range, and easeof use that steam and electric vehicles could not match. From the demise ofsteam and electric vehicles, internal-combustion vehicles using gasoline and die-sel fuel have enjoyed virtually complete dominance of the market. Ongoingdevelopment over time has resulted in very durable and reliable vehicles that aresafe and less damaging to the environment than ever before.

The original impetus for development of alternative fuels to gasoline and dieselfuel was the realization that the oil-producing nations that held the majority ofthe world's reserves had the power' to dictate the price and availability of what

The extent and completeness of this power is a topic of much debate, but there is no disagree-ment that the potential exists for much greater use of monopolistic powers if coordinated effortsby oil-producing nations are applied.

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Alternative Fuels Guidebook

had become a truly intemational commodity. The U.S., several European coun-tries, and Japan have led the development of altemative fuels because they havebecome dependent on oil imports to satisfy their transportation vehicle fuel needs.Today, the U.S. highway transportation sector is essentially totally dependent onpetroleum fuels, making transportation very vulnerable to oil shortages andsudden price increases. The U.S. now uses more petroleum fuels in light-dutyvehicles than all of its domestic oil production. Growth in light-duty vehicle fuelconsumption is projected to be 0.8% through the year 2015, and for heavy-dutyvehicles the fuel consumption growth rate is projected to be 1.3%. At the sametime, growth in net oil imports is projected to be 1.9%, which predicts an ever-widening gap between petroleum consumption and domestic production.2 Otherpetroleum-using sectors of the U.S. such as industry and utilities have made pro-visions to switch to fuels other than oil, while the transportation sector has not. Itis this dependence on petroleum fuels that is prodding the use of alternative fuelsin transportation.

Through experimentation with alternative fuels, it soon became clear that alter-native fuels had inherent environmental advantages as well. Each alternativefuel has some characteristic that gives it an environmental advantage over petro-leum fuels. Most are less damaging to the environment if spilled, and, in general,the emissions from alternative fuels are less reactive. This results in reducedamounts of ozone being produced with the benefit of improved air quality. In the1980s there was less concern about energy security in the U.S., but the environ-mental advantages of alternative fuels kept interest high. In the 1990s the pendu-lum has swung back to the energy security value of alternative fuels. U.S.dependence on foreign oil, particularly for transportation, has assumed a steadyincrease approaching levels in the past when oil shortages or price shocks haveoccurred. Another reason interest in alternative fuels has again centered onenergy security is because emission control technology combined with cleanerpetroleum fuels such as reformulated gasoline and "clean diesel" has resultedin emission levels low enough to significantly depreciate the emissions benefitsof alternative fuels.

2 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, A1996 Annual Energy Out-look - 1996 - With Projections to 2015,@ DOE/EIA-0383(96), January 1996, National En-ergy Information Center, EI-23 1, Energy Information Administration, Forrestal Building, RoomlF-048, Washington, D.C. 20585.

2

Introduction

The initial work on alternative fuels focused on which one was best from theviewpoint of technical feasibility, production capability, and cost. That questionwas never answered with certainty and, in the interim, development of alterna-tive fuel vehicle technology has proceeded in parallel. Technical feasibility is nolonger questioned, and the focus now has shifted more toward which alternativefuels can be produced at a competitive cost. Cost is calculated in terms not onlyof fuel price, but vehicle price and operating characteristics, and the expense ofdeveloping a national fuel distribution infrastructure. In addition, new issuessuch as public awareness and training of vehicle maintenance personnel havearisen as the use of alternative fuel vehicles spreads. Professions only peripher-ally aware of vehicle technology, such as professional engineers that must designvehicle storage and maintenance facilities, will need to become familiar with thephysical characteristics and safe handling practices of alternative fuels. Buildingcode and standards-setting organizations are slowly gaining the necessary infor-mation to address alternative fuels, though the process for change of codes andstandards is a thorough one that takes many years to complete.

Alternative fuel vehicles will likely become more prevalent throughout the U.S.as a result of the passage and implementation of the Energy Policy Act of 1992,known as EPACT. EPACT requires the Federal government, state governments,and companies producing alternative fuels (fuel providers) to purchase alterna-tive fuel vehicles as part of their new vehicle acquisitions. The Federal govern-ment has to date acquired approximately 15,000 alternative fuel vehicles, andthe regulations for state and fuel providers to begin to acquire alternative fuelvehicles went into effect on March 16, 1996.3 EPACT also includes provisionsfor requiring private and local fleets to purchase alternative fuel vehicles if it isdetermined that the petroleum displacement caused by Federal, state, and fuelprovider alternative fuel vehicles is insufficient to meet the petroleum displace-ment goals of EPACT (if enacted, this mandate would take effect in 2002). TheU.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that within ten years, annualsales of alternative fuel vehicles could exceed one million per year because ofstate mandates in addition to EPACT and from market-driven sales of alternative

3 Federal Register, Vol. 61, No. 51, Thursday, March 14, 1996, p. 10622.

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Alternative Fuels Guidebook

fuel vehicles.4 These alternative fuel vehicles will create substantial demand fornew fuel storage and dispensing facilities, and for modifications of existingfacilities.

The objective of this book is to inform engineers and other interested partiesabout alternative fuels. It is directed at the professionals whose responsibilitiesrequire a working knowledge of alternative fuels, and who need a ready refer-ence to inform and guide them in making decisions in their work. It concentrateson altemative fuels, their properties, characteristics, materials compatibility, andsafe handling practices. It does not attempt to include the vehicle technology forusing alternative fuels, nor their efficiency and emissions characteristics. Theseare changing very rapidly and are therefore not conducive for inclusion in a textmeant to have more lasting content.

The alternative fuels included in this book are those which are considered themost likely candidates for use in internal-combustion engines and future energyconversion devices such as fuel cells. The alcohols (methanol and ethanol), naturalgas (compressed and liquefied), LP gas, vegetable oils, and hydrogen are all cov-ered in their entirety. Electricity is included only in terms of facility modifica-tions for recharging and storing electric vehicles since the means for distributingelectricity is not affected by its use in electric vehicles. Dimethyl ether (DME) isa promising alternative fuel for diesel engines made from natural gas, with physi-cal properties similar to LP gas. Very little work has been done to define theproduction processes, typical composition data of DME from such plants, andstorage and dispensing requirements for DME (though they are likely to be verysimilar to those for LP gas). At present, it is too early to provide guidance abouthow DME should be stored and dispensed.

4 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, A1996 Annual Energy Out-look - 1996 - With Projections to 2015,@ DOE/EIA-0383(96), January 1996, National EnergyInformation Center, EI-231, Energy Information Administration, Forrestal Building, RoomI F-048, Washington, D.C. 20585.

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