All these quotes are from Napoleon. What do they tell you about him?

“Power is my mistress. I have worked too hard at her conquest to allow anyone to take her away from me.”

“There are but two powers in the world, the sword and the mind. In the long run the sword is always beaten by the mind."

“Impossible is a word to be found only in the dictionary of fools.” "He that makes war without many mistakes has not made war very long." “Death is nothing, but to live defeated and inglorious is to die daily.” “Ten people who speak make more noise than ten thousand who are silent.” “History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon”. “I know when it is necessary, how to leave the skin of lion to take one of fox.” “A man will fight harder for his interests than for his rights.” “A throne is only a bench covered with velvet.” “Religion is what keeps the poor from murdering the rich.”

The Rise and Fall of Napoleon’s

Empire

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Church Representatives

Empress Josephine

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Napoleon---”Men of genius are meteors destined

to burn themselves out in lighting up their age.”

Napoleon: “Nothing is more difficult,

and therefore more precious, than to be

able to decide.”

Napoleon: “Glory is fleeting, but obscurity

is forever.”

Edmund Burke’s Prediction:True or False?

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British parliamentarian and political philosopher sometimes referred to as the ‘father of conservatism’.

Written straight after the French Revolution began Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) was strongly antirevolutionary, arguing that revolution would destroy also all that was good in society, create disorder, and lead ultimately to the coming to power of a tyrant seen as capable of restoring order.

Rise of Napoleon

• Artilleryman promoted from Captain to Brevet Brigadier General.

• Won acclaim in Toulon in 1793.• Defended the French government by using

cannons against mobs in 1795.• Student of the military art

– Voracious reader

Napoleon’s First Major Military Campaign---Italian Campaign

• Invaded Italy in 1796• Secured 12 victories in 12 months

– Rapid maneuver• To and in battle

– Concentrated his mass against enemy weaknesses– Interior lines– Flexible maneuver

• Revolutionary politics appealed to Italians• It was in Italy that Napoleon realized he was headed for greatness.

He was aware that he was a “world-historical figure”, a “great man”, and “a hero in history.”

• He later confided: “In Italy I realized I was a superior being and conceived the ambition of performing great things, which hitherto had filled my thoughts only as a fantastic dream.”

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Napoleon’s Rise to PowerEarlier military career the Italian Campaigns:

1796-1797 he conquered most of northern Italy for France, and had developed a taste for governing.

In northern Italy, he moved to suppress religious orders, end serfdom, and limit age-old noble privilege.

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Napoleon and Venice• 1797: Napoleon, being master of

all northern Italy, with the exception of Venice, the mistress of the Adriatic, though no longer qualified to keep equal rank with the first princes of Europe, was still proud and haughty, and not likely to omit any favourable opportunity of aiding Austria in the great and common object of ridding Italy of the French.

• Napoleon wished to make an ally of Venice.

• To her government he said …..

• "Your whole territory is imbued with revolutionary principles. One single word from me will excite a blaze of insurrection through all your provinces. Ally yourself with France, make a few modifications in your government, such as are indispensable for the welfare of the people, and we will pacify public opinion and will sustain your authority."

• Advice more prudent and humane could not have been given, but Venice was not to take it!

Napoleonic Campaign in Egypt:1798-1801

Napoleon’s attempt to seize Egypt and undermine Britain’s access to India◦Napoleon took control of Egypt on land◦Brought along scientists

Studied the pyramids, etc. Discovered the Rosetta stone British took control of Egypt and all discoveries following the defeat of the

French forces in EgyptBattle of the Nile – August 1-3, 1798

◦Britain’s Horatio Nelson defeated French naval forces◦Napoleon and his troops became stranded in Egypt◦August, 1799 – Napoleon snuck past the British blockade in the

Mediterranean and returned to Paris

Napoleon in Egypt, 1798

Napoleon’s Rise to Power: EgyptEarlier military career the Egyptian Campaign:

1798 he was defeated by a British navy under Admiral Horatio Nelson, who destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.

Abandoning his troops in Egypt, Napoleon returned to France and received a hero’s welcome!

British Cartoon Making Fun of Napoleon’s Failed Campaign in Egypt

Napoleon’s Modernization of the French Army---His “Scarecrow Army”

• None of the French army had real uniforms.• Most of the soldiers had either tied rags around their feet or wore home-

made flip flops made from plaited straw.• They had not been paid for months and had not eaten in days.• When Napoleon was put in charge of the army, he spent most of his money in

the first few days.• He bought 18000 pairs of boots and enough corn meal to make three months

worth of bread if the soldiers mixed their flours with ground chestnuts.• Their weapons---the old-fashioned muskets were almost useless. • A soldier might be able to fire two rounds a minute if he was a crack shot.• And after 20 minutes, he would have to stop in the midst of battle to clean his

musket.• Because of this, Napoleon would turn to other military strategies to make

them more effective.

Napoleon’s New Military Strategies• He attacked the enemy before they had a chance to get

ready..• He attacked anywhere…not just on flat ground.• He attacked from any direction---from the front, the sides,

and the back.• He attacked where the enemy looked the weakest…war was

not a gentleman’s act.• He moved his troops incredibly quickly---attacking, winning,

marching on again, then attacking again.• He insisted on discipline in his army and did his best to stop

looting.• He demanded and got sole command of his army.

Napoleon’s Innovative Military Tactics• Reconnaissance

– Find gaps with skirmishers.• Concentrate artillery fire on the gaps.

– Weight “main effort”• Pour exploitation force through the gap.

– Reinforce success, not failure• Pursue with mobile forces.

– Strategic offense and tactical defense.– Sought to do more than just attrite the

enemy.

Napoleon as Military Reformer• In 1800 Napoleon

formally adopted the corps d’armee system – The corps consisted of

several divisions, elements of all arms, and a small staff

– They were highly mobile, flexible, and able to operate independently

Napoleon’s Innovative Military Tactics: Corps D’Armee

• Main tactical organization• Capable of independent maneuver/battle

– Infantry, artillery, cavalry• Make contact, then hold on until reinforced.• Heavy cavalry “corps” as Army reserve.

– Held for commitment at the decisive point.• New methods for logistical support enabled army

to move more quickly with greater security.

Additional Reforms• By 1805 Napoleon’s Grand Army had seven corps

that could operate independently or be grouped together to form ad hoc field armies

• Napoleon organized his cavalry into heavy, light, and line units which proved especially skilled in the pursuit

• He employed artillery with infantry divisions and cavalry brigades as well as maintaining an artillery reserve for the army

• The end result as a more uniform and flexible structure designed for offensive operations

Napoleonic Soldiers• Napoleon’s soldiers were different

from those in other European armies• They were largely combat veterans

that seldom saw garrison duty• New recruits spent little time in

training camps, instead learning by mingling with the veterans

• Napoleon prized eagerness and spirit over education

• Of Napoleon’s seven corps commanders in 1805, only two were over 40

• The ability to march long distances was essential

The Other Armies

• The other European armies, most notably the Austrians, had made few improvements

• The highest positions were reserved for members of the emperor’s family– Most officers received direct appointments or

transferred from foreign armies– Appointment of officers was the sole prerogative

of regimental colonels

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Revolutionary ideology marked a rejection of limited war in favor of total war– Armies got bigger in order to achieve the goals of

destroying enemies, overthrowing governments, and annexing territory

– The levee en masse mobilized every aspect of the country

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• The quality of soldiers and officers improved– Citizen-soldiers were motivated by patriotism– Officers corps were opened up to men of talent

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• The techniques of fighting changed– New emphasis on speed and mobility– Commanders subdivided armies to facilitate

movement, drawing supplies, and flexibility– Tactics were simplified and weapons, especially

artillery, were improved

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Helped Mahan formulate his theories on sea power– Saw the Navy’s economic strangulation of France

by blockade as the key to Britain’s defeat of Napoleon

– “It was not by attempting great military operations on land, but by controlling the sea, and through the sea the world outside Europe,” that the British “ensured the triumph of their country.”

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Problems– Some areas and conditions did not support Napoleon’s

desire to live off the land– Mounting casualties among veterans compelled an

increased reliance on poorly trained and less motivated conscripts and foreigners

– Guerrilla warfare did not facilitate Napoleon’s desire for decisive victory

– Napoleon’s enemies began partially implementing his reforms

– The British had a sea power advantage

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Problems– Napoleon had his own limitations

• Failed to comprehend the new situations in Spain or Russia

• Overconfident and power-hungry• Unwilling to compromise at the peak of his power in

1809 or before in order to achieve a comfortable peace• A great campaigner, but not so skilled at grand strategy

or foreign policy

Decision to Conquer the World

• Before becoming emperor, Napoleon had fought wars to defend France against its European enemies.

• But in 1804, his intentions changed.• Napoleon explained: “I wanted to rule the

world, and in order to do this I needed unlimited power.”

Britain• Island nation off the coast of France---divided by the English

Channel at the widest point of 20 miles• Half the size of France• 1/3 the size of France’s population• Army only 250,000 in comparison to the French army of 1.5

million• Hoping to conquer Britain, Napoleon assembled a 150,000

man invasion called the Army of England• He built a large fleet of barges that would carry his Army of

England across the English Channel• But Britain decided to strike first and declared war on

Napoleon and France in 1803

Britain• The powerful British navy took up positions

along the coast of France and formed a blockade to keep French ships safely in port

• By the spring of 1805, Britain had persuaded Austria and Russia to join in a new coalition against France.

• But Napoleon refused to back down and he drew Spain into an alliance.

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Trafalgar (Lord Nelson: Fr. Navy lost!)

BritainFrance 1805: SeaPower

Battle of Trafalgar

Battle of Trafalgar: Causes

• 1803: Peace of Amiens between Britain and France broke down

• For nearly two years, Britain was on the defensive waiting for France to make the first move.

• 1804: Spain allied with France, giving Napoleon the ships he needed to challenge Britain.

Trafalgar(British Naval Superiority)

• In the Napoleonic era, the British navy dominated the sea while the French army dominated the European continent– The British naval superiority lay in its fleet greater

aggressiveness and skill• In 1804 Napoleon developed a plan to draw

the British fleet away from the English Channel where it blocked a French invasion

Britain and the Battle of Trafalgar• Napoleon order French warships to the coast

of Spain where reinforcements waited• The combined Franco-Spanish fleet would

pretend to sail to the British colonies in the Caribbean.

• When the British pursued them, the ships would secretly double back to support an invasion of Britain.

Britain and the Battle of Trafalgar• Napoleon’s admirals protested this plan, because the knew the

winds would keep the French fleet from being able to elude the British navy, but Napoleon ignored them.

• On October 21, the British navy caught up with the Franco-Spanish fleet near Spain’s Cape Trafalgar in the Mediterranean Sea.

• British Admiral Nelson sent this message to his men: “England expects that every man will do his duty.” This later becomes the motto of the British navy.

• Within a few hours, half of Napoleon’s ships were sunk and the rest in full retreat.

• The French navy never recovered from its defeat at Trafalgar.• Napoleon was forced to scrap his plan to invade Britain once and

for all.

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Napoleon had his fleet sail for the West Indies which would cause the British to divert ships from the Channel to meet this new threat

• The plan failed and instead Napoleon ordered Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve to “dominate” the coast of southern Spain

• British Admiral Horatio Nelson and Villeneuve then met off Cape Trafalgar on the southern tip of the Spanish coast on Oct 20, 1805

Events of Battle of Trafalgar

• Napoleon’s Franco-Spanish fleet battled in Toulon and broke out into the Atlantic in early 1805

• The British, led by Admiral Nelson, were waiting and chased them all the way to the West Indies.

• By late 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet found shelter at Cadiz and was positioned to attack British trading ships or Britain itself.

Events of the Battle of Trafalgar

• Admiral Nelson caught up with the Franco-Spanish navy at Cadiz

• The Franco-Spanish navy, under pressure by Napoleon, put out to sea on October 19, 1805.

• 33 Franco-Spanish ships faced 27 British ships• Admiral Nelson anticipated every move the

Franco-Spanish navy made.• He used a two column approach and engaged the

French quickly since a storm was coming.

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Villeneuve’s fleet formed in a single line while Nelson formed his into two

• Nelson’s southern column attacked first cutting off 16 of the French and enemy ships and then the northern column struck

Battle of Trafalgar

Results of the Battle of Trafalgar• The British won due to speed and flexibility of their

ships.• Once the battle started, it ended with 12 British ships

facing 22 Franco-Spanish ships.• The leaders of the Franco-Spanish ships surrendered by

4:30PM.• 19 Franco-Spanish ships were taken.• The British sustained 1700 wounded or killed men.• Admiral Nelson died of injuries sustained in the battle.• 6,000 French/Spanish sailors were injured or killed.• 20,000 French/Spanish sailors were taken as prisoner.

Battle of Trafalgar: October 21, 1805Death of Horatio Lord Nelson

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Nelson was killed by a sniper but the British gained one of the most decisive victories in naval history– The British took or destroyed

18 of the enemy’s 34 ships of the line while losing none of their own

• Trafalgar gave the British undisputed control of the seas and the French were confined to the land and made vulnerable to strikes from the coast

Battle of Trafalgar: October 1805

• This defeat ended Napoleon’s plans to invade Britain.

• A limit had been set on Napoleon’s empire and proved that he could be defeated.

• He then developed the Continental System to try to bring down Britain.

Next Political Cartoon On Defeat of Napoleon’s Navy

• Two scenes of battle are contrasted. On the left, titled "The Game of Brag," Napoleon exhorts his troops to join him in the game of conquest.

• He stands in a dramatic profile pose; although his body is turned towards the viewer, the caricaturist has chosen to delineate his hallmark profile. In his right hand Napoleon carries a large sword and with his left gestures towards the edge of the image--beyond which is Great Britain.

• In typical fashion, Napoleon's enormous black hat is ostentatiously decorated, as is his uniform.

• Soldiers holding bayonets stand in orderly rows and wear pristine uniforms. • The image on the right side of the sheet depicts "The Game of Hazard.“• Here, Napoleon and his troops have landed themselves in the choppy waters of the

English Channel. • In the distance, a warship explodes in a spectacular show of fire.• Other ships, presumably French, are covered in billowing clouds of smoke.• A British fort, proudly flying the flag, defends the coast with cannon fire that devastates

the French Navy. Napoleon is in the foreground of this image. • Half submerged in the water, he waves his arms and laments the loss of his "Invincibles,"

who drown and sink with him.

Campaigns

• Italy

• Austria

• Spain

• Russia

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Britain Austria Russia

(3rd Coalition)

France 1805: -Danube-Italy

e ULM: France defeated Austria.e AUSTERLITZ: France defeated

Austria & Russia.

Crowned “King of Italy” on May 6, 1805

Ulm(Mobility and decisive battle)

• In Sept 1805 the Austrians moved into Bavaria with three armies on line

• As soon as he ascertained the Austrians’ advance, Napoleon dispatched Marshall Joachim Murat’s cavalry followed by various corps

Ulm• Emperor Napoleon• French have seven corps spread over

a 100 mile front.–All converge on Ulm.

• Converge between Russians and Austrians.

• Austrians surrender 27 thousand troops without a fight.–Epitome of maneuver warfare…

Ulm (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Using his superior mobility and ability to live off the land, Napoleon drove deep into Germany and conducted a gigantic strategic envelopment of the Austrians

• 27,000 Austrians surrendered

Crossing the Alps-1805

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Three days after Ulm, Napoleon marched toward Vienna and the Russians opposing him withdrew and received reinforcements

• Napoleon realized that after chasing the allied armies almost 400 miles his lines of communications were vulnerable and winter was approaching

• He decided to lure the enemy into a decisive engagement to end the campaign with one great battle

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Napoleon did a careful reconnaissance and selected the Pratzen heights as the site for the battle but did not concentrate his entire army there in hopes of luring the allies into an attack

• When the allies attacked on Nov 30, Napoleon had his soldiers withdraw from the Pratzen heights, feigning disorder

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• The allies occupied the heights and on Dec 2 they launched a three column attack that was exactly what Napoleon had hoped for– As the allies advanced,

they weakened their center at the Pratzen heights in order to commit more forces to their southern attack

– Napoleon attacked the weakened allied center and it collapsed

Austerlitz December 1805• Napoleon realizes he can’t defeat England, so he

looks to the East for greater glory.• Russia + Austria = 89 thousand men

France 73 thousand men• Plans to lure Russians into premature attack by

creating appearance of a weak front and exposed flank.

• Surprise Russians with arrival of Davout.– Marched 140km in 48 hours to join the battle.

• Russians take bait and attack French right

Austerlitz (cont)• Orders his left to hold.• With both Allied flanks busy, he launches his main

effort (Soult) against their center, splitting the enemy force.

• Column under Bernadotte pushes through the hole and encircles Allied right; French left drives forward and squeezes.

• Soult starts behind Russian left and Russians break and retreat.

• Tactical victory that secured strategic victory.

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Hundreds of Russians surrendered

• As others tried to escape across the ice covered Satschan and Menitz ponds, Napoleon fired artillery that helped break the ice and compel the Russians to surrender or drown

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• The allies lost almost a third of their troops

• Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg on Dec 26 which ended the Third Coalition but the Russians kept on fighting

Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by Francois Gerard

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

JENA: French Troops in Berlin!

BERLIN DECREES(“Continental System”)

PrussiaFrance 1806:Confed.of theRhine

4th Coalition created

Battles of Jena and Auerstedt and Prussia

• After the victories at the Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz, Napoleon seemed unstoppable.

• In the fall of 1806, the rulers of Prussia decided that they could no longer ignore the French army who were quartered on their southern border.

• Napoleon commented on this: “The idea that Prussia could take the field against me by herself seems so ridiculous that it does not merit discussion.”

• In October 1806, 19 days after the Prussian army began to mobilize, Napoleon crushed them at the Battles of Jena and Auerstedt, killing 140,000 Prussian soldiers.

Jena-Auerstadt(Corps System)

• In Oct 1806 a Fourth Coalition of Britain, Prussia, and Russia formed to fight Napoleon

• The Prussians had an outdated army that had a woefully immobile supply system

• On Oct 14 Napoleon concentrated 90,000 men and defeated what he thought was the main Prussian army at Jena

Jena-Auerstadt (Corps System)

• In the meantime, Davout’s corps of 26,000 men encountered a much stronger Prussian force about thirteen miles from Jena at Auerstadt

• Davout appealed to Bernadotte for help but Bernadotte ignored him

• With no choice but to fight or surrender, Davout fought with a determination that shocked the Prussians

Jena-Auerstadt (Corps System)

• At Auerstadt, Davout won although outnumbered three to two in infantry, six to one in cavalry, and five to one in artillery

• The victory proved the superiority of the corps system

• Napoleon vigorously pursued the fleeing Prussians who were almost completely destroyed

Marshall Louis Nicholas Davout

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

FRIEDLAND: France defeated Russian troops : France occupied Konigsberg, capital of East Prussia!

RussiaFrance 1806: Poland

Battle of Friedland and Russia• After the defeat of Prussia, Napoleon turned to conquering Russia.• After a brutal winter, on June 14, 1807, Napoleon met with Tsar

Alexander’s army near the Russian border.• The Battle of Friedland lasted 23 terrible hours before the Russians fled

across the Lyna River in the dead of night.• While the dead were being buried, Napoleon met Tsar Alexander on a raft

in the center of the Lyna River, which marked Russia’s western boundary.• Tsar Alexander greeted Napoleon with these words: “Sir, I hate the

English as much as you do.”• Napoleon laughed and said, “So I see we have made peace.”• Napoleon did not ask for any Russian territory, because Napoleon wanted

an ally against the British.• Since his plan to invade the Britain had failed, he decided to fight the war

in the marketplace instead.

Napoleon’s Residence on St. Helena

Napoleon’s Death• Some think

Napoleon died of cancer.

• Others think he died from toxic fumes from the wallpaper in the house he spent the last 6 years of his life. (Arsenic)

• Researchers from the San Francisco Medical Examiner's Department outline their theory for the French Emperor's demise in New Scientist magazine. They say doctors killed Napoleon through over-zealous treatment.

• Napoleon died aged 52 in 1821, on the island of St Helena in the south Atlantic where he had been banished after his defeat at Waterloo.

• It's not as sexy as the idea that he was murdered. • Most historians accept the official explanation that Napoleon died from stomach cancer. • This was the verdict of an autopsy carried out after his death by his personal physician

Francesco Antommarchi and witnessed by five other doctors. • Stomach cancer had also killed Napoleon's father. • But doubts were raised in 2001 when French forensic specialists said tests on

Napoleon's hair suggested a "major exposure to arsenic". • It was suggested that the British governor of St Helena, Hudson Lowe, conspired with

French count Charles de Montholon to assassinate Napoleon• This new theory from the US scientists says arsenic clears the two suspects. It says

exposure to the poison from coal smoke and other environmental sources could have been a factor in Napoleon's death.

• But they say it is more likely that it was the treatments given to Napoleon in an attempt to cure him that actually killed him.

• He was given regular doses of antimony potassium tartrate, or tartar emetic a poisonous colourless salt which was used to make him vomit. He was also given regular enemas.

•

• The researchers, led by forensic pathologist Steven Karch, say this would have caused a serious potassium deficiency, which can lead to a potentially fatal heart condition called Torsades de Pointes in which rapid heartbeats disrupt blood flow to the brain.

• They say the final straw is likely to have been a 600 milligram dose of mercuric chloride, given as a purge to clear the intestines two days before his death.

• This was five times the normal dose, and would have depleted his potassium levels still further, they say.

• Dr Karch told BBC News Online he came to his conclusions after looking at modern cases where treatments had led patients to develop a potassium deficiency, and then Torsades de Pointes.

• He said: "There is a very strong argument for this - but it's not as sexy as the idea that he was murdered. "The arsenic wasn't killing him - his doctors did him in!"

• However Phil Corso, a retired Connecticut doctor, who advocates the cancer theory, told New Scientist: "It's really far-fetched when you think about it. He said Napoleon had clearly been sick for some time and would have died from his tumour, regardless of the treatment meted out to him by doctors.

• Was Napoleon poisoned or did he die of stomach cancer?• Antommarchi's autopsy report is very complete and shows Napoleon's general state of health at his

death, notably a chronic stomach ulcer and pulmonary lesions linked to tuberculosis. • Cancer cannot be diagnosed because of a lack of histological evidence from the stomach lining. • At any rate, one does not die 'of cancer', one dies of the effects of the cancer on the organism.• Analysis of the emperor's hair and the discovery of high level of arsenic therein poses several

questions. But it is intellectually impossible to accept the theory of death by arsenic poisoning.• First of all, we can never be 100% certain that the hairs analysed come from Napoleon. Furthermore,

the level of arsenic could be interpreted in different ways, notably the methods of analysis and the ways of calculating the levels used by the toxicologists (numbers obtained weighed against the number of hairs analysed: in fact, very few hairs have been analysed.

• Whilst presence of arsenic cannot be explained arguing from its external use (in cosmetics, for example), we still do not know where the arsenic came from, and it could have come from many sources. The hairs on the head of the people in Napoleon's entourage could also have a high arsenic content.

• Finally, to pass from toxicological results to a poisoning theory, then to a voluntary criminal act is very difficult. Indeed, one cannot establish a theory, accepting certain elements of the correspondence of one of the protagonists whilst eliminating other elements two paragraphs further on which contradict this position.

• The only certainties thus are, Napoleon's general state of health was very poor and no direct cause of death can be determined accurately.

• This is the only satisfactory conclusion from an ontological point of view, both for the scientist and for the historian. A deeply held conviction may be the starting point of an investigation but certainly not its conclusion.

St. Helena ... THE END!The German cartoon on the right ridicules the defeated Napoleon, showing him commanding an army of mice during his exile in St. Helena

Legacy of Napoleon• Historians believe Napoleon achieved only two of the three

goals of the French Revolution: Equality and Fraternity at the great expense of Liberty.

• Reforms like the Napoleonic Code made France a fairer place.• But his secret police put enemies in jail.• He censored the press.• And many of his accomplishments were temporary, because

as soon as he was gone, Napoleon’s family members were overthrown.

• Napoleon was one of the greatest military minds of his time, but due to his wars, six million people died.

• Tens of millions lost their homes or their children.