195A.K. Srivastava (ed.), Advances in Citrus Nutrition, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4171-3_14, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract

Biodynamic (BD) agriculture became the subject of interest in the last years as an increasing number of researchers, professionals, and farmers are starting to explore and practice this way of farming. Basic BD practices and their background are presented in this chapter, backed with research results and fi ndings from scienti fi c literature. One of the more known and at the same time controversial topic of BD farming, the BD preparations, are explored more into detail, with a focus on processes in the compost, the soil, and the buildup of soil fertility with their use. Moreover, effects of BD practices on perennial crops are exempli fi ed on the case of the vine since there is yet no research published on other perennial crops. The importance of the complex soil-plant system and the potential in fl uence of BD practices are put into perspective.

Keywords

Soil fertility • Biodynamic tools • Biodynamic preparations • Soil-plant interaction • Recommendations

Biodynamic Soil Fertility Management

Matjaž Turinek , Martina Bavec , and Franc Bavec

14

M. Turinek (*) • M. Bavec • F. Bavec Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences , University of Maribor , Pivola 10 , Hoče pri Mariboru 2311 , Slovenia e-mail: matjaz.turinek@uni-mb.si ; martina.bavec@uni-mb.si ; franci.bavec@uni-mb.si

14.1 Introduction

Biodynamic (BD) agriculture is one of the sustainable agri-cultural systems, and its foundations were laid in the so-called “Agricultural Course” held by the Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner in 1924 (Turinek et al. 2009 ) . It presents a holistic approach toward farming, where the main focus stands on perceiving the world around us as a com-plex system, where there is not only the visible, material world but also the invisible world of energies and the spiri-tual dimension. Next to that, the development of the farm and the farmer through space and time and the idea of a farm

organism or farm individuality are some of the core principles of BD agriculture. This usually indicates that farm manage-ment should minimize nutrient and energy inputs in order to make the farm self-supporting and autonomous, which is true also for organic farms. But it also encompasses a broader idea of the farm placement in its surroundings, the involvement of the people working on the farm, a balance between the subsystems or “organs” of the farm (arable crops, pastures, livestock, horticulture, etc.) and the ele-ments of nature, such as forests, heaths, moors, and water-courses (Vereijken et al. 1997 ) . The main principles of modern organic farming, such as composting, green manures, closed nutrient, and life cycles, among others, were taken after BD farming principles (Conford 2001 ) and are still at the core of BD farm management. The methods and proposals developed from the Agricultural Course pres-ent the basis for most of BD farmers, whereas there have been some regional modi fi cations on the application of the proposed methods, especially regarding the use of BD

196 M. Turinek et al.

preparations (i.e., different ways of storing and using the preparations, “new” preparations being added to the original eight, selling vs. on-farm making of the preparations, etc.). Most of research done and literature published (scienti fi c and professional) is available in German since the German-speaking countries present the origin of BD farming and also have the longest history of practicing it.

14.2 Geographical Developments

BD agriculture is practiced on every continent of the Earth and is thus practically applicable in every climatic, cultural, economic, and social environment. However, not all BD farms apply for certi fi cation of their products according to BD standards, also known under the private trademark “Demeter,” which is managed by the nonpro fi t Demeter International Association, seated in Germany. Thus, there are around 4,500 BD farms in 43 countries, whose area of approximately 142,000 ha is certi fi ed according to Demeter standards (Demeter 2011 ) . Most of that area lies in Germany (66,000 ha), as the development of BD agriculture began there and has the longest tradition, followed by France (7,500 ha) and India (7,273 ha). Next to that, there are many farmers who apply BD methods; however, they do not apply for Demeter certi fi cation. In Slovenia, for example, there are only 18 certi fi ed Demeter farms; however, over 1,500 small gardeners, farmers, and beekeepers have joined the BD “Ajda” association, which promotes BD farming practices and organizes lectures, workshops, and training for those interested in learning this way of farming. Moreover, Australian BD farmers established their own BD association (which also certi fi es their products but is not acknowledged by Demeter International), with over 1,400 members who farm on around 800,000 ha of land using BD methods.

14.3 Biodynamic Tools

One of the main “tools” to improve agriculture, given in the Agricultural Course, are the BD preparations (Table 14.1 and Fig. 14.1 ), which were further developed and tested in the last 85 years. They are made from medicinal plants, cow dung, and minerals using the indi-vidual preparation procedures (Koepf et al. 1996 ; von Wistinghausen et al. 2005, 2007 ) . The interested reader is kindly referred to professional literature for a detailed description of preparing and using the preparations. However, the thoughts behind the preparations are uncon-ventional and sometimes dif fi cult to understand as they are to be used as homeopathic preparations for the soil and plants. BD 500, made out of cow dung and buried over winter in the soil (Fig. 14.2 ), is regarded as a soil fertility preparation, which enhances soil biological func-tions through the stimulation of soil life. BD 501, made out of fi nely ground quartz or pure silica and buried in the soil over summer, is meant to enhance plant resilience and resistance by stimulating the establishment of bal-ance in the plant, making it more active and at the same time “aware” of its surroundings. BD 502-507 have a similar function of helping to establish well-balanced and mature compost fertilizers for the soils, helping to build long-term humus complexes and adding to the long-term soil fertility. The underlying natural science mechanistic principle of BD preparations is still under investigation, whereas some attempts have been made to explain the mode of action in the past. Effects were fi rstly explained as a normalization (normalizing yields under low yield-ing conditions) or compensation (BD preparations com-pensating for lower N fertilization) effect, where both explanations leave many open questions (Raupp and Konig 1996 ) .

Table 14.1 BD preparations, main ingredients, type of use, and mentioned areas of in fl uence

Number of preparation Main ingredient a Use Mentioned in the agricultural course in connection with

BD 500 Cow manure Field spray Soil biological activity BD 501 Silica Field spray Plant resilience BD 502 Yarrow fl owers ( Achillea millefolium L.) Compost preparation K and S processes BD 503 Chamomile fl owers ( Matricaria recutita L.) Compost preparation Ca and K processes BD 504 Stinging nettle shoots ( Urtica dioica L.) Compost preparation N management BD 505 Oak bark ( Quercus robur L.) Compost preparation Ca processes BD 506 Dandelion fl owers ( Taraxacum of fi cinale Web.) Compost preparation Si management BD 507 Valerian extract ( Valeriana of fi cinalis L.) Field spray, compost

preparation P and warmth processes

a The procedure of preparation and fermentation is in detail described in various sources (Steiner 1924 ; Sattler and Wistinghausen 1989 ; von Wistinghausen et al. 2005, 2007 ) . BD preparations are designed to be used together on a farm/farming system

19714 Biodynamic Soil Fertility Management

A systems response and adaptation model was suggested as a possible explanation, where the effects of BD prepara-tions do not depend only on their properties and mode of application. Foremost, properties of soils and plants, envi-ronmental conditions, and how they interact are suggested as factors which determine the effects of BD preparations to the greatest extent (Raupp and Konig 1996 ) . Moreover, BD preparations are applied in small quantities of 4–160 g/ha, where physical or biological effects seem unlikely (Reganold 1995 ) . In addition, BD preparations were also shown to have hormone-like effects (Goldstein et al. 2004 ) . The latest indi-rect, and most prominent, explanation on their mode of action was given by Montagnier et al. ( 2010 ) , who have found some bacterial and viral DNA sequences to induce

low-frequency electromagnetic waves in high aqueous dilutions, which then invoke the “creation” of the same DNA sequences in the “clean” medium, although none of the original DNA sequence exists in the dilution. Put simply, this means that water acts as a transmitter of information being dissolved in it through electromagnetic waves and this infor-mation (whatever it may be) is then transmitted to the recipi-ent of this aqueous dilution – in our case to the soil or plants – and is then responsible for the creation of substances in it. This, however, presupposes that the information to be trans-ferred from the BD preparations is already in balance and adapted to soil/plant conditions – thus the active preparation procedures with burying them in biologically active soils and/or fermentation.

The aforementioned regional differences between appli-cations of BD preparations can be seen on Australian BD farms reported in studies and other BD fi eld trial comparison studies and farm comparisons. Namely, in Australia only preparation BD 500 was applied 1–2 times each year (Ryan and Ash 1999 ) . Also, Nguyen and Haynes ( 1995 ) report only preparation of BD 500 being used on a BD farm in New Zealand. As discussed in professional literature, however, the preparations were designed to be used together and only as such they can have the desired, wholesome, effectiveness, i.e., help to create balance in the soil and plants.

Moreover, Steiner ( 1924 ) mentioned positive effects of a full moon in an agricultural context. On this basis, Spiess ( 1990a, b ) scienti fi cally researched the effects of lunar rhythms and proved the in fl uence of several rhythms on growth, yield, and quality of little radish and rye. His results, however, were contrasting to fi ndings of Thun ( 1994 ) , who found one single rhythm to be the most important one. On the basis of a reanalysis of Spiess’ data, Kollerstrom and Staudenmaier ( 2001 ) argue that Spiess’ experimental results comply with the fi ndings and recommendations of Thun, therefore con fi rming a lunar in fl uence on crop growth and development. However, the in fl uence of other astrological bodies (i.e., planets) on crop growth and development is dif fi cult to research and therefore also dif fi cult to scienti fi cally reject or prove an in fl uence. One cannot say to live without a certain planet for a year and then see the in fl uence this planet had on crop growth and development. And with our current knowledge, it is also impossible to shield areas of planet Earth from just certain, not all, in fl uences planets have. Therefore, one would have to come up with an innovative and at the same time trustworthy idea to be able to conduct scienti fi c research in this highly interesting area. However, Thun ( 1994 ) conducted fi eld research on her own experi-mental fi elds for the last 50 years on this matter, and she yearly publishes the “Astronomical planting calendar,” which is nowadays translated into over 40 languages worldwide.

There are also other approaches and/or tools that BD farmers use on their farms, but most of them are already

Fig. 14.1 BD preparations 500, 502–507 are usually stored in ceramic or glass containers, surrounded and covered by peat, together in a larger box in a cool and dark place. BD 501 is stored in a glass container and kept on a sunny place

Fig. 14.2 Cow manure in cow horns for BD 500 before being buried in the soil over winter

198 M. Turinek et al.

known from good organic farming husbandry. Nevertheless, some of the most important are:

Use of mature composts for fertilization • Mixed farms with rearing of animals • Diverse crop rotations with the inclusion of leguminous • plants Green manures and cover crops • Use of stable, locally adapted seeds and/or varieties • Then there are some practices, which are strongly

endorsed, however, not mandatory for Demeter-certi fi ed farms, such as:

Building on the local economy • Use of minimum tillage or preservation tillage for arable • land Working in the social area of a farm (handicapped people, • kindergartens, schools, education, and seminars)

14.4 Effects of BD Preparations on Soil Fertility

As for the BD preparations, which are the greatest peculiar-ity of BD farming, experimental results show their effects not only on yields (Fig. 14.3 ) but also on some ongoing pro-cesses in compost piles and in the long term in the soil. Carpenter-Boggs et al. ( 2000 ) report higher average tem-peratures (3.4°C higher compared to the control pile)

throughout the active composting period, whereas Zaller ( 2007 ) measured no signi fi cant differences in the average temperature of BD and conventional (CON) compost piles. BD-treated compost also contained 65% more nitrate in the fi nal samples, respired carbon dioxide (CO

2 ) at a 10% lower

rate, and had a larger dehydrogenase enzyme activity to CO 2

production ratio (Carpenter-Boggs et al. 2000 ) . Carpenter-Boggs et al. ( 2000 ) suggest that BD preparations caused these effects through their bioactive ingredients or by serv-ing as microbial inoculants. In addition, the microbial popu-lation in BD preparations was found to be substantial (Rupela et al. 2003 ) , where bacteria population ranged from 3.45 to 8.59 log

10 g −1 . Also, a population of fungi was found

in the preparations 502 and 506 (5.30 and 4.26 log 10

g −1 , respectively). Several bacteria and fungi strains found in BD preparations showed a potential for suppressing fungal plant pathogens (Rupela et al. 2003 ) . This population could also be the reason for the signi fi cant and clear-cut difference in dehydrogenase, protease, and phosphatase activity with respect to the farming systems in the DOK (Biodynamic, Organic and Conventional (CON) agriculture long-term comparison) trial, where highest values were measured for the BD system (Maeder et al. 2002 ) . Similar, but not as accentuated, differences were found also in another long-term trial (Raupp 2001 ) , whereas Zaller and Köpke ( 2004 ) found no differences between the BD and organic plots (Fig. 14.4 ).

140

120

107

100

129 126 125

100 100 100

Conventional agricultureOrganic agriculture

Biodynamic agriculture

99

Wheat Potato Rye Grass-clover

97

92

98100

80

60

% (B

D y

ield

s=10

0)

40

20

0

Fig. 14.3 Relative yields of wheat, potato, rye, and clover grass depending on farming system, based on results from published scienti fi c research trials

19914 Biodynamic Soil Fertility Management

250

200

150

100

mg T

PF

10g

−1

50

0

Conventional agriculture

Organic agricultureBiodynamic agriculture

Only Mineral Fertilisation132

87 88

130 130

76

109122

175

226

Raupp 2001Zaller and Köpkc 2004Flie bach et al. 2007

Fig. 14.4 Dehydrogenase activity in three long-term fi eld trials in Europe depending on the farming system

Moreover, higher soil organic matter contents on BD plots were found in two separate fi eld trials (Fig. 14.5 ) (MIN-ORG trial in Germany and the DOK trial in Switzerland), as well as in two studies on BD farms in New Zealand and in the Netherlands, where BD farming practices have been applied for several years (Reganold et al. 1993 ; Droogers and Bouma 1996 ; Raupp 2001 ; Maeder et al. 2002 ) . Microbial biomass nitrogen also differed signi fi cantly in the DOK trial and accounted highest in the BD system with 59% more than in the CON farmyard manure (FYM) system (Fließbach et al. 2007 ) . Furthermore, the microbial biomass carbon was 35%

higher in the BD system, compared to the CON-FYM system (Maeder et al. 2002 ; Oehl et al. 2004 ) . In contrast, Zaller and Köpke ( 2004 ) report no differences between treat-ments in regard to microbial biomass carbon, where untreated FYM and FYM treated with BD preparations were applied (Fig. 14.6 ). In both cases, microbial biomass carbon was signi fi cantly higher than on control plots (Zaller and Köpke 2004 ) , which leads to the conclusion that FYM had an impor-tant effect on the soil microbial biomass buildup. Wada and Toyota ( 2007 ) went a step further and discovered that FYM applications add to the stability of soil biological functions,

120

100

80

8591

101 100

91

79

60

40

% o

f co

nten

t at

beg

inni

ng

20

0Flie bach et al. 2007 Raupp 2001

Conventional or mineral agriculture

Biodynamic agriculture

Organic agriculture

Fig. 14.5 Change in soil organic matter carbon in two long-term trials after 20 years depending on the farming system

200 M. Turinek et al.

where microbial and fungal populations show resilience and resistance against disinfection. In addition, FYM contributes toward a changed soil nitrogen composition and higher rates of protein amino acids, which bind nitrogen in the soil (Scheller and Raupp 2005 ) . However, differences between treatments do not seem to depend solely on amino acid sup-ply from manure. An altered amino acid metabolism in the soil also in fl uences soil amino acid composition and con-tents. Soils receiving FYM with BD preparations have a lower catabolism:anabolism ratio than soils receiving non-prepared FYM, which results also in a more intensive humidi fi cation process. The explanation for the in fl uence of BD preparations on anabolism is yet to be found (Scheller and Raupp 2005 ) .

14.5 Importance of the Plant-Soil Interaction

Additionally, when science makes progress in discovering the interconnectedness of the many Earth’s systems and the complexity of nature, many of the statements given in the “Agricultural Course” can be understood or at least give food for thought. For example, it was suggested that “…if you work the soil as just explained, then the plant will be ready to attract ‘things’ in its wider surroundings. The plant can take bene fi t not just from the contents of the fi eld, where it grows, but also of the contents of the soil in the neighboring pasture, if the plant needs it. The plant can also bene fi t from the soil in the neighboring forest, if it is made sensible in the described

way…” (Steiner 1924 , p. 160). And indeed, with today’s knowledge on the existence of extensive mycelial networks in soils, which have been proved to connect individual spe-cies, genera, and even families of plants (He et al. 2003 ) , in connection with results indicating the improvement of arbus-cular mycorrhizal fungi by BD preparations (Ryan and Ash 1999 ; Maeder et al. 2002 ) , we can understand and con fi rm this assumption given over 85 years ago. Moreover, nutrient mobilization from soil minerals is not the only bene fi t of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Frey-Klett et al. ( 2007 ) report that fi xation of atmospheric nitrogen and protection of plants against root pathogens are also among the myriad bene fi ts of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and mycorrhiza helper bacte-ria. Raupp ( 2001 ) also reports of a higher density of roots on plots treated with BD preparations. Mycorrhiza helper bacte-ria could be the possible reason for this effect, as they have been proved to stimulate lateral root formation and thus increase potential root-mycorrhiza interaction points (Frey-Klett et al. 2007 ) .

An active interaction between the soil and the plant is also mentioned in the “Agricultural Course.” Today, as we try to understand the complexity of plant nutrition, organic and BD practices advocate “feeding” (fertilizing) the soil, so the plant can feed itself from it indirectly. In this sense, we attained some interesting results in trials on red beet (Bavec et al. 2010 ) , where higher levels of malic acid were measured in samples from BD and control plots. A study of Rudrappa et al. ( 2008 ) hints toward one of the possible reasons for this phenomenon, observed also in other studies. It was demon-

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

% (

Con

vent

iona

l ag

ricu

ltur

e or

min

eral

fer

tilis

atio

n=

100)

Flie bach et al. 2007 Raupp 2001Zaller and Köpkc 2004

100

117

134

100

125 125 126

114

100

81Conventional agriculture

Organic agricultureBiodynamic agriculture

Only Mineral Fertilisation

Fig. 14.6 Microbial biomass carbon content in three long-term trials, where also BD agriculture was included

20114 Biodynamic Soil Fertility Management

strated that malic acid, selectively excreted through roots, signals bene fi cial rhizobacteria and encourages their interac-tion with plants. Bene fi cial soil bacteria have been found to confer immunity against a wide range of foliar diseases by activating plant defenses. Organic acids (as well as phenolic compounds) have been also found to participate in leveling out P de fi ciency by being excreted through plant roots (Badri and Vivanco 2009 ) . The aforementioned potential role of organic acids and phenolic compounds in leveling out P de fi ciency is partly re fl ected in the malic acid concentrations and the total phenolic content (TPC) in our trial. However, the BD system deviates from this assumption in both cases – despite relatively high levels of P added also high values for malic acid and TPC were measured. Reasons for this deviation could be sought in a changed microbial structure, enzyme activity, or amino acid metabolism found in BD sys-tems (Turinek et al. 2009 ) . Plant-microbial interactions and plant-soil interactions are increasingly being researched and seem to play an important role in providing plants with nutri-ents and activating resilience against pests and diseases, whereas a consequence food products can also gain some bene fi cial constituents/compounds (Badri and Vivanco 2009 ) . Reganold et al. ( 2010 ) , for example, found more than 200 different unique strains of microorganisms in organic soils, as compared to only two in conventional soils for strawberry production.

14.6 Effects on Perennial Crops

Up-to-date scienti fi c research on perennial crops has been only done and/or published on vines since BD wine grape production is increasingly attracting attention as some of the world’s prestigious wine producers have started to use BD practices in the last decade (Reeve et al. 2005 ) . Experimental results suggest BD practices have an effect on wine grape canopy and chemistry, where a more balanced canopy and wine composition were measured for BD wine production. However, no signi fi cant effects on soil fertility parameters were shown in the same 6-year on-farm comparison trial between ORG and BD practices in an organic vineyard in California (Reeve et al. 2005 ) . Probst et al. ( 2008 ) , however, measured signi fi cant differences in soil fertility between CON and BD soils in vineyards with a long history of BD (since 1981) and CON cultivation in Germany, which corre-late with the aforementioned results on fi eld trials on annual crops (Fig. 14.5 ). There is still an ongoing research compari-son trial including integrated, organic, and BD (with differ-ent BD preparation use frequency) wine production at the research station Geisenheim in Germany. First results indi-cate that not only the use of but also the timing in plant growth stage and the kind of preparation (BD 500 or BD 501) have an in fl uence on grape and consequently wine qual-

ity (Meissner 2011 ) , for example, overuse of the BD 500 preparation resulted in unbalanced and unripe “green” wines. There are also some professional/research associations deal-ing with BD fruit production, where apple production is the main focus. The most organized and visible one is the International Working Group on Biodynamic Fruit Production ( www.biodynamicfruit.org ), where useful resources, links, and contacts to professional literature and practitioners can be found.

14.7 Summarized Biodynamic Recommendations

A biodynamic farmer strives for balance on his farm, soils, fi elds, meadows, orchards, animals, and himself. As mani-fold demonstrated in nature and also in research presented in this chapter, a balanced organism is the basis for long-term stability and successful organic and biodynamic production. What is then the added value of the BD method? Certainly, results show better yields and healthier plants with the use of BD preparations – be it in compost, soils, or plants. Another important aspect is the personal development of the farmer through time and space through detailed observation and re fl ection, also called the “Goethean phenomenological approach” since it was successfully practiced by Goethe. Through dedicated observation of a phenomenon in the time span of several months or years, one can, of course, only with the subsequent re fl ection of the observed, eventually understand the phenomenon itself. This approach may not be something new, but it is certainly something that is not done consciously and with discipline anymore, be it by farmers, researchers, teachers, etc. So raising awareness and under-standing for the processes in the world around us is another important aspect and recommendation for practical and research work, which is central in BD farming. Since only with the understanding of the speci fi c conditions each farm is positioned in, one can choose and use the right measures at the right time in the right way at that speci fi c farm. This brings us to another important aspect already mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. The BD “method” is not a “one-size- fi ts-all” recipe. The beauty and advantage of it is its adaptability to local conditions all over the world. So in re fl ection, the BD farming practice can also be regarded as a path of personal development for those engaged with it. However, one is not obliged or forced to take this path. The positive effects of the BD approach mentioned in this chapter are not conditioned with any personal development.

The interested reader is kindly referred to the numerous professional literature on the topic of BD agriculture, where more details on the use and practice of BD practices can be found. Even if most of it is in German, there are also some quality English books.

202 M. Turinek et al.

14.8 Future Research with Concluding Remarks

But what are some of the future research challenges we are faced with? What about the energy ef fi ciency or ecological impact of BD production on a wider scale (production to consumption)? Do we need to include economic feasibility into our studies? Then there are some more detailed ques-tions regarding BD preparations. Does it make a difference if they are made on farm or bought from a distant location? Does this affect the effectiveness of the preparations? Must the making of the preparations with the use of animal organs stay as given by Steiner? Or do we need to move forward, explore new possibilities, and develop an understanding for the reasons behind given procedures? What about research on farm animals? Moreover, is there a difference between BD prepared compost of animal and plant origin? How does this affect soil fertility and health? How do we need to change and adapt our soil fertilization and tillage systems in order to get balanced soils? Clearly, there is a need for more research on the effects and use of BD practices in perennial crops. However, how to approach this matter? Do we need to make more production systems comparison trials for that matter? If yes, how well de fi ned are the systems to be compared? And what are the areas of interest to compare? Soil quality and long-term fertility are certainly of high interest as they present the bases for healthy plants and high-quality pro-duce. As a continuation, food quality is still a highly dis-cussed and debated area, which would also deserve more attention on this account.

A working group of researchers and professionals, who gathered in an active process to exchange thoughts, experi-ences, and research results (Hurter 2007 ) , is one of the way signs into the future. More such informal groups and networks are being created all over the world. Also a web portal on biodynamic research ( http://biodynamic-research.net ), which was not long ago put into practical existence, could facilitate the exchange of ideas, thoughts, and results. A worldwide network of farmers, researchers, advisors, teachers, and others interested in BD farming could contribute toward naming and addressing questions from everyday practice. For it to work ef fi ciently, however, one would need dedicated and motivated persons who would actively participate in the creative process.

References

Badri DV, Vivanco JM (2009) Regulation and function of root exudates. Plant Cell Environ 32:666–681. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.01926.x

Bavec M, Turinek M, Grobelnik-Mlakar S et al (2010) In fl uence of industrial and alternative farming systems on contents of sugars,

organic acids, total phenolic content, and the antioxidant activity of red beet ( Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris Rote Kugel). J Agric Food Chem 58:11825–11831. doi: 10.1021/jf103085p

Carpenter-Boggs L, Reganold JP, Kennedy AC (2000) Effects of biody-namic preparations on compost development. Biol Agric Hortic 17:313–328

Conford P (2001) The origins of the organic movement. Floris Books, Edinburgh

Demeter IEV (2011) Demeter-International E.V. – A World-wide Network. http://www.demeter.net/ . Accessed 1 July 2011

Droogers P, Bouma J (1996) Biodynamic vs. conventional farming effects on soil structure expressed by simulated potential productiv-ity. Soil Sci Soc Am J 60:1552–1558

Fließbach A, Oberholzer HR, Gunst L et al (2007) Soil organic matter and biological soil quality indicators after 21 years of organic and conventional farming. Agr Ecosyst Environ 118:273–284. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.022

Frey-Klett P, Garbaye J, Tarkka M (2007) The mycorrhiza helper bacteria revisited. New Phytol 176:22–36. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02191.x

Goldstein W, Barber W, Carpenter-Boggs L et al (2004) Comparisons of conventional, organic, and biodynamic methods. Michael Fields Agricultural Institute, East Troy

He X-H, Critchley C, Bledsoe C (2003) Nitrogen transfer within and between plants through common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs). Crit Rev Plant Sci 22:531–567. doi: 10.1080/0735268031878237

Hurter M (2007) Zur vertiefung der biologisch-dynamischen land-wirtschaft. Verlag am Goetheanum, Dornach

Koepf HH, Schaumann W, Haccius M (1996) Biologisch-dynamische landwirtschaft eine einführung. Ulmer (Eugen), Stuttgart

Kollerstrom N, Staudenmaier G (2001) Evidence for lunar-sidereal rhythms in crop yield: a review. Biol Agric Hortic 19:247–259

Maeder P, Fliessbach A, Dubois D et al (2002) Soil fertility and biodi-versity in organic farming. Science 296:1694–1697. doi: 10.1126/science.1071148

Meissner G (2011) Grundbetrachtung der Rebe. Bio-dynamische land-wirtschaft III. Lehr- und Forschungsgemeinschaft für bio-dynamis-che Lebensfelder, Edelschrott, pp 61–72

Montagnier L, Aissa J, Del Giudice E et al (2010) DNA waves and water. arXiv:1012 5166. doi: http://arxiv.org/abs/1012.5166

Nguyen ML, Haynes RJ (1995) Energy and labour ef fi ciency for three pairs of conventional and alternative mixed cropping (pasture-ara-ble) farms in Canterbury, New Zealand. Agr Ecosyst Environ 52:163–172. doi: 10.1016/0167-8809(94)00538-P

Oehl F, Frossard E, Fliessbach A et al (2004) Basal organic phosphorus mineralization in soils under different farming systems. Soil Biol Biochem 36:667–675. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2003.12.010

Probst B, Schüler C, Joergensen R (2008) Vineyard soils under organic and conventional management – microbial biomass and activity indices and their relation to soil chemical properties. Biol Fertil Soils 44:443–450. doi: 10.1007/s00374-007-0225-7

Raupp J (2001) Research issues and outcomes of a long-term fertiliza-tion trial over two decades: a contribution to assessing long-term agronomic trials. Ber Landwirtsch 79:71–93

Raupp J, Konig UJ (1996) Biodynamic preparations cause opposite yield effects depending upon yield levels. Biol Agric Hortic 13:175–188

Reeve JR, Carpenter-Boggs L, Reganold JP et al (2005) Soil and wine-grape quality in biodynamically and organically managed vineyards. Am J Enol Vitic 56:367–376

Reganold JP (1995) Soil quality and pro fi tability of biodynamic and conventional farming systems: a review. Am J Altern Agric 10:36–45

20314 Biodynamic Soil Fertility Management

Reganold JP, Palmer AS, Lockhart JC et al (1993) Soil quality and fi nancial performance of biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand. Science 260:344

Reganold JP, Andrews PK, Reeve JR et al (2010) Fruit and soil quality of organic and conventional strawberry agroecosystems. PLoS One 5:e12346. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012346

Rudrappa T, Czymmek KJ, Paré PW et al (2008) Root-secreted malic acid recruits bene fi cial soil bacteria. Plant Physiol 148:1547–1556. doi: 10.1104/pp. 108.127613

Rupela OP, Gopalakrishnan S, Krajewski M et al (2003) A novel method for the identi fi cation and enumeration of microorganisms with potential for suppressing fungal plant pathogens. Biol Fertil Soils 39:131–134. doi: 10.1007/s00374-003-0680-8

Ryan M, Ash J (1999) Effects of phosphorus and nitrogen on growth of pasture plants and VAM fungi in SE Australian soils with contrast-ing fertiliser histories (conventional and biodynamic). Agric Ecosyst Environ 73:51–62. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8809(99), 00014-6

Sattler F, von Wistinghausen E (1989) Der landwirtschaftliche Betrieb – Biologisch-Dynamisch, 2nd edn. Ulmer (Eugen), Stuttgart

Scheller E, Raupp J (2005) Amino acid and soil organic matter content of topsoil in a long term trial with farmyard manure and mineral fertilizers. Biol Agric Hortic 22:379–397

Spiess H (1990a) Chronobiological investigations of crops grown under biodynamic management.1. Experiments with seeding dates to ascertain the effects of lunar rhythms on the growth of winter rye ( Secale cerale , cv Nomaro). Biol Agric Hortic 7:165–178

Spiess H (1990b) Chronobiological investigations of crops grown under biodynamic management. 2. Experiments with seeding dates to ascertain the effects of lunar rhythms on the growth of little radish ( Raphanus sativus , cv Parat). Biol Agric Hortic 7:179–189

Steiner R (1924) Geisteswissenschaftliche grundlagen zum gedeihen der landwirtschaft: landwirtschaftlicher kurs. Rudolf Steiner Verlag, Dornach, p 160

Thun M (1994) Hinweise aus der konstellationsforschung für Bauern, Weinbauern, Gärtner und Kleingärtner, 8th edn. Aussaattage Thun-Verlag, Biedenkopf

Turinek M, Grobelnik-Mlakar S, Bavec M et al (2009) Biodynamic agriculture research progress and priorities. Renew Agric Food Syst 24:146–154. doi: 10.1017/S174217050900252X

Vereijken JFHM, van Gelder T, Baars T (1997) Nature and landscape development on organic farms. Agri Ecosyst Environ 63:201–220. doi: 10.1016/S0167-8809(97), 00013-3

von Wistinghausen C, Scheibe W, Heilmann H et al (2005) Anleitung zur anwendung der biologisch-dynamischen feldspritzpräparate und düngerpräparate, 3rd edn. Lebendige Erde, Darmstadt

von Wistinghausen C, Scheibe W, Wistinghausen E et al (2007) Anleitung zur Herstellung der biologisch-dynamischen Präparate, 4th edn. Lebendige Erde, Darmstadt

Wada S, Toyota K (2007) Repeated applications of farmyard manure enhance resistance and resilience of soil biological functions against soil disinfection. Biol Fertil Soils 43:349–356. doi: 10.1007/s00374-006-0116-3

Zaller JG (2007) Seed germination of the weed rumex obtusifolius after on-farm conventional, biodynamic and vermicomposting of cattle manure. Ann Appl Biol 151:245–249. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2007.00172.x

Zaller JG, Köpke U (2004) Effects of traditional and biodynamic farm-yard manure amendment on yields, soil chemical, biochemical and biological properties in a long-term fi eld experiment. Biol Fertil Soils 40:222–229. doi: 10.1007/s00374-004-0772-0