Activity and Student Achievement

8/10/2019 Activity and Student Achievement

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The Association BetweenSchool-Based Physical Activity,

Including Physical Education,and Academic Performance


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Acknowledgments:This publication was developed for the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions (CDC) Division of Adolescentand School Health (DASH) under contract #200 2002-00800 with ETR Associates.

Suggested Citation:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The association between school based physical activity, including physicaleducation, and academic performance.Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2010.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary . 5

Introduction . 8

Methods 10

Conceptual Denitions . 10

Inclusion Criteria . 10

Identication of Studies that Met the Inclusion Criteria . 11

Classication of Studies . 11

Study Coding Process . 12

Data Analysis . 13

Results . 14

School-Based Physical Education Studies . 16

Recess Studies . 19

Classroom Physical Activity Studies . 21

Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies . 24

Summary . 28

Overall Findings . 28

Findings for Physical Activity by Context . 29

Findings by Gender, Other Demographic Characteristics, and Research Design . 30

Strengths and Limitations of Review . 30

Implications for Future Research or Evaluation . 31

Implications for Schools . 32

References . 34

Appendices . 39

Appendix A: Database Search Terms . 39


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

When children and adolescents participate in the

recommended level of physical activityat least 60minutes dailymultiple health benets accrue. Mostyouth, however, do not engage in recommendedlevels of physical activity. Schools provide a uniquevenue for youth to meet the activity recommendations,as they serve nearly 56 million youth. At the sametime, schools face increasing challenges in allocatingtime for physical education and physical activity

during the school day.

There is a growing body of research focused onthe association between school-based physicalactivity, including physical education, and academicperformance among school-aged youth. To betterunderstand these connections, this review includesstudies from a range of physical activity contexts,

including school-based physical education, recess,classroom-based physical activity (outside of physicaleducation and recess), and extracurricular physicalactivity. The purpose of this report is to synthesize thescientic literature that has examined the associationbetween school-based physical activity, includingphysical education, and academic performance,

including indicators of cognitive skills and attitudes,academic behaviors, and academic achievement.

Methods

For this review, relevant research articles and reportswere identied through a search of nine electronic

databases, using both physical activity and academic-related search terms. The search yielded a total of406 articles that were examined to determine theirmatch with the inclusion criteria. Forty-three articles(reporting a total of 50 unique studies) met theinclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, and

grades, test scores); 2) academic behavior (e.g., on-

task behavior, attendance); and 3) cognitive skills andattitudes (e.g., attention/concentration, memory, mood).Findings of the 43 articles that explored the relationshipbetween indicators of physical activity and academicperformance were then summarized.

Results

Across all 50 studies (reported in 43 articles), there werea total of 251 associations between physical activityand academic performance, representing measuresof academic achievement, academic behavior, andcognitive skills and attitudes. Measures of cognitiveskills and attitudes were used most frequently (112 ofthe 251 associations tested). Of all the associations

examined, slightly more than half (50.5%) were positive,48% were not signicant, and only 1.5% were negative.Examination of the ndings by each physical activitycontext provided insights regarding specic relationships.

1) School-Based Physical Education Studies

School-based physical education as a context

category encompassed 14 studies (reported in 14articles) that examined physical education coursesor physical activity conducted in physical educationclass. Typically, these studies examined the impactof increasing the amount of time students spent inphysical education class or manipulating the activitiesduring physical education class. Overall, increasedtime in physical education appears to have a positive

relationship or no relationship with academicachievement. Increased time in physical educationdoes not appear to have a negative relationshipwith academic achievement. Eleven of the 14 studiesfound one or more positive associations betweenschool-based physical education and indicators of


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the other two studies explored the relationshipsbetween recess and school adjustment or classroombehavior. Time spent in recess appears to have a

positive relationship with, or no relationship with,childrens attention, concentration, and/or on-taskclassroom behavior. All eight studies found oneor more positive associations between recess andindicators of cognitive skills, attitudes, and academicbehavior; none of the studies found negativeassociations.

3) Classroom Physical Activity Studies

Nine studies (reported in nine articles) exploredphysical activity that occurred in classrooms apartfrom physical education classes and recess. Ingeneral, these studies explored short physicalactivity breaks (520 minutes) or ways to introducephysical activity into learning activities that wereeither designed to promote learning through physical

activity or provide students with a pure physicalactivity break. These studies examined how theintroduction of brief physical activities in a classroomsetting affected cognitive skills (aptitude, attention,memory) and attitudes (mood); academic behaviors(on-task behavior, concentration); and academicachievement (standardized test scores, readingliteracy scores, or math uency scores). Eight of thenine studies found positive associations betweenclassroom-based physical activity and indicators ofcognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, andacademic achievement; none of the studies foundnegative associations.

4) Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies

Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) focusedspecically on the relationship between academicperformance and activities organized through schoolthat occur outside of the regular school day. Theseactivities included participation in school sports(interscholastic sports and other team or individual

Strengths and Limitations

This review has a number of strengths. It involved a

systematic process for locating, reviewing, and codingthe studies. Studies were obtained using an extensivearray of search terms and international databasesand were reviewed by multiple trained coders. Thestudies cover a broad array of contexts in which youthparticipate in school-based physical activities and spana period of 23 years. Furthermore, a majority (64%) ofstudies included in the review were intervention studies,

and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.

The breadth of the review, however, is a limitation. Allstudies meeting the established review criteria wereincluded and treated equally, regardless of the studycharacteristics (e.g., design, sample size). The studieswere not ranked, weighted, or grouped according totheir strengths and limitations. The breadth of the review,

while revealing a variety of study designs, measures, andpopulations, often made comparisons and summariesdifcult. As a result, conclusions are intentionally broad.

Implications for Policy

There are a number of policy implications stemming fromthis review:

There is substantial evidence that physical activity canhelp improve academic achievement, including gradesand standardized test scores.

The articles in this review suggest that physical activity

can have an impact on cognitive skills and attitudesand academic behavior, all of which are importantcomponents of improved academic performance.These include enhanced concentration and attentionas well as improved classroom behavior.


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Implications for Schools

The results of this review support several strategies that

schools can use to help students meet national physicalactivity recommendations without detracting fromacademic performance:

School-based physical education: To maximizethe potential benets of student participation inphysical education class, schools and physicaleducation teachers can consider increasing the

amount of time students spend in physical education oradding components to increase the quality of physicaleducation class. Articles in the review examinedincreased physical education time (achieved byincreasing the number of days physical education wasprovided each week or lengthening class time)and/or improved quality of physical education(achieved through strategies such as using trained

instructors and increasing the amount of active timeduring physical education class).

Recess: School boards, superintendents, principals,and teachers can feel condent that providing recessto students on a regular basis may benet academicbehaviors, while also facilitating social developmentand contributing to overall physical activity and itsassociated health benets. There was no evidence thattime spent in recess had a negative association withcognitive skills, attitudes, or academic behavior.

Classroom-based physical activity:Classroomteachers can incorporate movement activities andphysical activity breaks into the classroom setting that

may improve student performance and the classroomenvironment. Most interventions reviewed here usedshort breaks (520 minutes) that required little or noteacher preparation, special equipment, or resources.

Extracurricular physical activities:The evidencesuggests that superintendents, principals, and athleticdirectors can develop or continue school-based

sports programs without concern that these activitieshave a detrimental impact on students academicperformance. School administrators and teachersalso can encourage after-school organizations, clubs,student groups, and parent groups to incorporatephysical activities into their programs and events.


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INTRODUCTION

When children and adolescents participate in at least60 minutes of physical activity every day, multiplehealth benets accrue.1,2Regular physical activity buildshealthy bones and muscles, improves muscular strengthand endurance, reduces the risk for developing chronicdisease risk factors, improves self-esteem, and reducesstress and anxiety.1 Beyond these known health effects,physical activity may also have benecial inuences onacademic performance.

Children and adolescents engage in different typesof physical activity, depending on age and accessto programs and equipment in their schools andcommunities. Elementary school-aged children typicallyengage in free play, running and chasing games,jumping rope, and age-appropriate sportsactivitiesthat are aligned with the development of fundamental

motor skills. The development of complex motor skillsenables adolescents to engage in active recreation (e.g.,canoeing, skiing, rollerblading), resistance exerciseswith weights or weight machines, individual sports (e.g.,running, bicycling), and team sports (e.g., basketball,baseball).1,3Most youth, however, do not engage in therecommended level of physical activity. For example,

Dening

Academic

Performance

In this review, academic performance is usedbroadly to describe different factors that mayinuence student success in school. These

factors fall into three primary areas:

Cognitive Skills and Attitudes(e.g., attention/concentration, memory,verbal ability).

only 17.1% of U.S. high school students meet currentrecommendations for physical activity (CDC, unpublisheddata, 2009).

Schools, which serve nearly 56 million youth in theUnited States, provide a unique venue for youth to meetthe physical activity recommendations.4At the sametime, schools face increasing challenges in allocatingtime for physical education and physical activity during

the school day. Many schools are attempting to increaseinstructional time for mathematics, English, and sciencein an effort to improve standards-based test scores.5

As a result, physical education classes, recess, andother physical activity breaks often are decreased oreliminated during the school day. This is evidenced bydata from both students and schools. For example, in2007 only 53.6% of U.S. high school students reported

that they attended physical education class on 1 or moredays in an average week at school, and fewer (30%)reported participating in physical education classesdaily.6Similarly, in 2006 only 4% of elementary schools,8% of middle schools, and 2% of high schools in theUnited States provided daily physical education or itsequivalent for all students in all grades.7Furthermore,in 2006 only 57% of all school districts required thatelementary schools provide students with regularlyscheduled recess. As for physical activity outside ofphysical education and recess, during the school day,16% of school districts required elementary schools, 10%required middle schools, and 4% required high schoolsto provide regular physical activity breaks.7

In addition to school-day opportunities, youth also haveopportunities to participate in physical activity throughextracurricular physical activities (e.g., school sports,recreation, other teams), which may be available throughschools, communities, and/or after-school programs.8

Seventy-six percent of 6- to 12-year-olds reported


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performance among school-aged youth.3,10-16 Thisdeveloping literature suggests that physical activity mayhave an impact on academic performance through avariety of direct and indirect physiological, cognitive,emotional, and learning mechanisms.12,17,18 Research onbrain development indicates that cognitive developmentoccurs in tandem with motor ability.19

Several review articles also have examined theconnections between physical activity and academicbehavior and achievement. Sibley and Etnier12

conducted a meta-analysis of published studies relatingphysical activity and cognition in youth. Two additionalreviews described the evidence for relationships betweenphysical activity, brain physiology, cognition, emotion,and academic achievement among children, drawingfrom studies of humans and other animals across thelifespan.14,20 Finally, two other reviews summarized selectpeer-reviewed research on the relationship between

physical activity and academic performance, with anemphasis on school settings and policies.15,16

Research also has explored the relationships amongphysical education and physical activity, tness levelsand motor skill development, and academic performance.For example, several studies have shown a positiverelationship between increased physical tness levels andacademic achievement10,21-27as well as tness levels andmeasures of cognitive skills and attitudes.28In addition,other studies have shown that improved motor skill levelsare positively related to improvements in academicachievement29-31and measures of cognitive skills andattitudes.32-34

To extend the understanding of these connections, thisreview offers a broad examination of the literature ona range of physical activity contexts, including physicaleducation classes, recess, classroom-based physicalactivity breaks outside of physical education class andrecess, and extracurricular physical activity, thereby

How Physical Activity Affects theBrain16 18

Cognitive skills and motor skills appearto develop through a dynamic interaction.Research has shown that physical movementcan affect the brains physiology byincreasing

Cerebral capillary growth.

Blood ow.

Oxygenation.

Production of neurotrophins.

Growth of nerve cells in thehippocampus (center of learning andmemory).

Neurotransmitter levels.

Development of nerve connections.

Density of neural network.

Brain tissue volume.

These physiological changes may beassociated with

Improved attention.

Improved information processing,storage, and retrieval.

Enhanced coping.
http:///reader/full/ability.19http:///reader/full/ability.19http:///reader/full/attitudes.28http:///reader/full/ability.19http:///reader/full/attitudes.28


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METHODS

Conceptual DenitionsThe research on this topic suggests that physical activitycan be related to many different aspects of academicperformance (e.g., attention, on-task behavior, grade-point average [GPA]), and as a result, the existingliterature examines a wide range of variables. Inthis report, those variables are organized into three

categories: 1) cognitive skills and attitudes, 2) academicbehaviors, and 3) academic achievement. The threecategories, as well as other important terms used in thisreport, are dened below.

Academic Performance: In this review, academicperformance is used broadly to describe different factorsthat may inuence student success in school. These

factors are grouped into three primary areas:

1) Cognitive Skills and Attitudes

Cognitive skills and attitudes include both basiccognitive abilities, such as executive functioning,attention, memory, verbal comprehension, andinformation processing, as well as attitudes andbeliefs that inuence academic performance, suchas motivation, self-concept, satisfaction, and schoolconnectedness. Studies used a range of measures todene and describe these constructs.

2) Academic Behaviors

Academic behaviors include a range of behaviors

that may have an impact on students academicperformance. Common indicators include on-taskbehavior, organization, planning, attendance,scheduling, and impulse control. Studies used arange of measures to dene and describe theseconstructs.

Physical Education:Physical education, as denedby the National Association for Sport and PhysicalEducation (NASPE), is a curricular area offered in K12schools that provides students with instruction on physicalactivity, health-related tness, physical competence, andcognitive understanding about physical activity, therebyenabling students to adopt healthy and physicallyactive lifestyles.35A high-quality physical education

program enables students to develop motor skills,understand movement concepts, participate in regularphysical activity, maintain healthy tness levels, developresponsible personal and social behavior, and valuephysical activity.35

Recess:Recess is a time during the school daythat provides children with the opportunity for active,

unstructured or structured, free play.

Physical Activity: Physical activity is dened as anybodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletalmuscle that increases energy expenditure above a restinglevel.1Physical activity can be repetitive, structured, andplanned movement (e.g., a tness class or recreationalactivity such as hiking); leisurely (e.g., gardening); sports-focused (e.g., basketball, volleyball); work-related (e.g.,lifting and moving boxes); or transportation-related (e.g.,walking to school). The studies in this review includeda range of ways to capture the frequency, intensity,duration, and type of students physical activity.

Physiology: In this report, physiology includes

indicators of structural or functional changes in the brainand body. Studies most often reported measures ofphysical tness, motor skills, and body composition fromthis construct.

I l i C i i
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Be published between 1985 and October 2008.*

Focus on school-aged children aged 518 years.

Include clear measures of physical education and/orphysical activity, such as

Physical education class. Recess.

Classroom-based physical activity (outside ofphysical education and recess).

Extracurricular physical activities (including schoolsports and other teams).

Measure academic performance (cognitive skillsand attitudes, academic behaviors, and academicachievement) using one or more educational orbehavioral outcomes. Examples include Graduation or dropout rates (n=2).

Performance on standardized tests (n=17).

Academic grades/GPA (n=9).

Years of school completed (n=1).

Time on task (n=3). Concentration or attentiveness in educational

settings (n=7).

Attendance (n=3).

Disciplinary problems (n=6).

School connectedness(n=2).

Studies were excluded if they did not meet the abovecriteria or if they focused solely on sedentary lifestylevariables, overweight status, or media use ratherthan physical activity. Studies also were excluded ifthey focused exclusively on the relationship between

academic performance and tness test scores rather thanphysical activity itself. Review articles, meta-analyses, andunpublished studies were excluded from the coding andanalysis portion of this review, although their referencelists were used to identify original research to bereviewed for inclusion.

Identication of Studies that Metthe Inclusion Criteria

Studies were identied through a search of nineelectronic databases (ERIC, Expanded AcademicIndex ASAP, Google Scholar, PsycNET, PubMed,ScienceDirect, Sociological Abstracts, SportDiscus),and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied HealthLiterature (CINAHL) using a pre-established set of searchterms that included both physical activity and academic-

related terms (see Appendix A). Additional studies alsowere located from reference lists of the identied articles.

Classication of Studies

The search yielded 406 articles (see Figure 1). Twotrained researchers examined each article to determine

its match with the inclusion criteria; it was then classiedas included for review or excluded from review.

When the match was unclear, articles were temporarilyclassied as possible inclusion before being reviewedby two additional researchers for nal classication.Initially, 50 articles were identied for inclusion. Four ofthose articles were later excluded because they lackedclarity necessary to categorize them appropriately for thereview. For example, one article examining movementlacked sufcient information to determine whether themovement should be classied as physical activity;another article lacked a clear academic performancevariable. The other two articles lacked clarity indescriptions of analyses and testing of research questionsthat was necessary for categorization. A fth article was

excluded because of its focus on elite athletes rather thana general student population. Two additional articles thatexamined associations between participation in a sports-based interdisciplinary curriculum and academic gradeswere excluded because of insufcient detail about thephysical activity participation levels of students and the


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F IGURE 1:

108Included for Review

87Excluded from Review



43Total Articles Included for Review

85 of these articles werelater classified as excluded

These 38 articles were reviewedby 5 team members and

then classified as

Classified as

38Possible Inclusion



406Total Articles

Article Classification System

age range of interest (n=58); inability to obtain full textof the study (n=49); and a publication date outside theinclusion range (n=6).

Overall, 43 articles (describing 50 unique studies) metthe inclusion criteria and were read, abstracted, andcoded for this synthesis. Two articles in this reviewpresented ndings from more than one study that metinclusion criteria; one article described three studies,37

and the other reported six.2

Study Coding Process

The coding method for this report is similar to that of

Whenever possible, information was abstracteddirectly from articles as stated by authors. The followinginformation was abstracted: purpose, research questions,study design, sampling, sample characteristics, setting,

theory, intervention, methods, analytic strategy, results,limitations, study focus, and additional comments. Forthis review, study designs were classied as experimental,quasi-experimental, descriptive, or case studies (studydesigns are dened in Appendix C); data collection

methods and time points were noted as described.Studies that lacked details regarding any eld of interestwere coded as information not provided.

To ensure consistency in coding, approximately 17%of all articles were double-coded by a reviewer and a


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classied as using quasi-experimental or experimentaldesigns is provided at the beginning of each of theseappendices. These summaries were e-mailed to thestudies corresponding authors for review and verication.

Authors not responding within the initial timeline receiveda second request for review. Seventy-two percent of theauthors (31 of 43) reviewed their summaries. Author editsand suggestions were incorporated where applicable.

Data Analysis

Coded data from the articles were used to categorizeand organize studies rst by their physical activity contextand then by outcome, cohort, sampling groups, and datepublished. The individual studies were identied (in theinstances where articles described more than one study),and all reviewed studies were treated equally, regardlessof study characteristics or design. Although meta-analysis

was considered as a method to analyze data in thisreview, the small number and heterogeneity of studiesprecluded use of that method. Therefore, descriptiveliterature synthesis was conducted. In this report, theresults describe the types of associations or relationshipsreported in the studies. When positive or negativeassociations are described in the Results section below,they refer to ndings that the study authors reported asreaching statistical signicance (p 0.05).


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RESULTS

This review examines the ndings of 43 articles (reectiveof 50 studies total) that explored the relationshipbetween physical activity and/or physical education andacademic performance. Each study was categorizedin one of four physical activity context areas: 1) school-based physical education; 2) recess; 3) classroom-basedphysical activity (outside of physical education andrecess); and 4) extracurricular physical activity.

School-based physical educationas a context categoryencompassed all studies that were explicitly set inphysical education class or consisted of a school-based course or curriculum that addressed primaryaspects of physical education. This category includedactivities conducted in physical education class but didnot exclude curricula with components that extendedbeyond formal physical education. Typically, studies in

this category examined the impact of increasing theamount of time students spent in physical educationclass or manipulating the types of activities conductedwith students.

Recess studies explored the relationship betweenacademic performance and recess during the school dayin elementary schools. Recess is typically 1015 minutesor longer of unstructured free play that may occur as abreak during the school day or in association with lunch.

Classroom-based physical activity as a context categoryincluded studies that were classroom-based but werenot physical education class or recess. In general, thesestudies explored short physical activity breaks (520

minutes) or ways to introduce physical activity intolearning activities that were either designed to promotelearning through physical activity or provide studentswith a pure physical activity break. These interventionsare relatively easy and inexpensive for a teacher toincorporate into the classroom.

Results at a Glance

For the 43 articles reviewed,

A total of 251 associations betweenphysical activity and academicperformance were measured.

The most commonly measured indicator

of academic performance wascognitive skills and attitudes (112 of the251 associations tested).

More than half (50.5%) of allassociations tested were positive.

Positive associations were found across

measures of academic achievement,academic behavior, and cognitive skillsand attitudes.

There were only four negativeassociations, accounting for 1.5% of allassociations tested.

Of all 50 studies in the review, almost two-thirds (62%)focused on youth physical activity experiences throughschool-based physical education, during recess, or inthe classroom; the remaining studies (38%) examined

extracurricular physical activity (see Table 1). Slightlymore than half (54%) of the articles focused exclusivelyon students in secondary school settings; 44% includedstudies conducted with elementary students; and 2%included both elementary and secondary grade levels.The scope and research designs varied as well. Most


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For ease of review, the results are presented here byphysical activity context. Within each context, results aredescribed by study focus (intervention or nonintervention)and by the type of results.

Each results subsection also includes a summary tablethat shows the number of associations (total, positive,negative, and no association) for all the studies reviewed

in that context area. Results with pvalues less than 0.05are considered statistically signicant in this report.Qualitative and descriptive studies that did not includesignicance testing are described in the text of this report,but not in the outcome counts. Associations are displayedby type of academic performance outcome measured:cognitive skills and attitudes, academic behavior, oracademic achievement.

Table 1: Summary Characteristics of Reviewed Studies

Number of Studies that IncludedAcademic Achievement Measure*

Characteristics of StudiesNumber of

Studies (N=50)Academic

AchievementAcademicBehavior

Cognitive Skillsand Attitudes

Physical Activity Context

Physical education class 14 10 3 7

Recess 8 0 3 5

Classroom based 9 6 1 5

Extracurricular physical activity 19 16 9 14

Study Design

Experimental 11 8 3 6

Quasi-experimental 17 6 4 12

Descriptive 22 17 11 11

Data Collection Design

Cross-sectional 12 8 3 5Longitudinal 38 27 15 26

Intervention

Intervention 32 20 12 23

Nonintervention 18 15 6 8

Setting

School day 40 26 12 22

After school 6 5 2 5Community 3 3 3 3

Household 2 2 1 2

Student Sample Educational Level

Primary 22 12 6 11

Secondary 27 23 11 19


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School-Based Physical EducationStudies

Fourteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examined therelationship between school-based physical educationand academic performance (see Figure 2, and Tables2a and 2b). Most (n=10) described intervention studiesand assessed the impact of an intervention on a rangeof outcomes. The remaining four were descriptive andexamined the relationships between physical education

and academic measures. Appendix D includes summaryproles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.FIGURE 2:

Type of Association Observed for CognitiveSkills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,

and Academic Achievement OutcomesAcross Al l Physical Education Class Studies

(n=79 associations within 14 studies)

Positive Association (n=39)

No Association (n=39)

Negative Association (n=1)

Intervention Studies.In general, the interventionstudies (three implemented in the United States andseven in other countries) examined how differences inphysical education affected academic performance. Six

School-Based Physical EducationStudies: Highlights

Eleven of 14 studies found one or morepositive associations between physicaleducation and indicators of cognitiveskills and attitudes, academic behavior,and/or academic achievement.

Overall, increased time in physicaleducation appears to have a positiverelationship or no relationship withacademic achievement.

Increased time in physical educationdoes not appear to have a negativerelationship with academic achievement.

Two studies examined strategies for improving the qualityof physical education: one focused on implementation bytrained instructors of a curriculum that promotes greateramounts of moderate and vigorous physical activity instudents, and the other implemented multiple strategiessuch as focusing on students personal goal setting,emphasizing opportunities for active participation by allstudents, and maximizing active use of class time.47,48Theremaining two studies examined the relationship betweenincreasing the emphasis on different types of activities(i.e., aerobic exercise, coordinative exercise) and aspects

of academic performance.49,50

Collectively, the studies were conducted across abroad range of grade levels, representing elementary,middle, and high schools. Seven studies employed anexperimental design, and three reported data from


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(e.g., self-esteem and motivation), academic behaviors(e.g., conduct), and/or academic achievement(e.g., standardized test scores and GPA).

Results varied across the 10 intervention studies, withmost (8 of 10) showing one or more positive associations.Two studies showed all or mostly positive associationsbetween physical education and cognitive skillsand attitudes or academic achievement. Specically,Ericsson43found that extending physical education (from2 days per week to daily) was associated positively with

academic achievement (math, reading, and writingtest scores). That study also noted positive associations

for attention, an indicator of cognitive functioning,although the relationships dissipated over time. Buddeand colleagues49found that coordination exercises(i.e., exercises that require the body to balance, react,adjust, and/or differentiate) were more benecial thannormal sport lessons in boosting cognitive functioning(specically, concentration and attention).

Six studies reported more mixed conclusions. Fivefound a mixture of positive and nonsignicantassociations.41,42,44,47,50 For example, Dwyer and

colleagues42

compared academic achievement andclassroom behavior across three intervention conditions

Table 2a: School-Based Physical Education Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomesof Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Physical EducationIntervention Studies (N=10 Studies)*

Total # ofPerformance

OutcomesAcross the 10Intervention

Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between

Physical Education Class and Academic Performance

Positive None Negative

Cognitive Skills and Attitudes(N=7 Studies) 24 12 12 0

Attention/concentration 5 3 2 0

Self-esteem 1 1 0 0

Creativity 1 1 0 0Perception of academic or intellectualcompetence/self-concept 8 3 5 0

Perceptual motor ability 1 0 1 0

Planning ability 1 0 1 0

Perceived self-concept 2 1 1 0

Impulse control 3 2 1 0

Life satisfaction 1 1 0 0

Attitude towards school 1 0 1 0

Academic Behavior(N=3 Studies) 7 2 5 0

Conduct 7 2 5 0

Academic Achievement(N 6 S di ) 21 11 9 1


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(tness group: 75 minutes of activity daily, with anemphasis on intensity of activities; skill group: 75minutes of activity daily with no focus on intensity; andcontrol group: three 30-minute periods of physicaleducation per week). They found no differences inacademic achievement across the three interventionconditions, despite the fact that students in the tnessand skill groups actually had less classroom teachingtime to accommodate the increase in time for physicaleducation. They also found that classroom behaviorimproved for students in the skill and tness intervention

conditions. The sixth study found four positive and threenonsignicant associations, as well as one negativerelationship.48Sallis and colleagues48 examined anintensive 2-year health-related physical educationprogram that was taught by trained classroom teachersor physical education specialists and was designed toincrease students physical activity levels. They found thatthe SPARK program taught by trained teachers had a

positive impact on reading, language, and basic batterystandardized test scores, but had no signicant impacton math. When taught by physical education specialists,students in the SPARK program scored better thanstudents not enrolled in SPARK on reading, but lower onlanguage and about the same in math.

Finally, two studies found no associations between

physical education and indicators of academicperformance. These studies examined the relationshipbetween the frequency of physical education andeither cognitive skills and attitudes46 or academic

achievement.45Raviv and Low46 found that physicaleducation did not reduce concentration, contrary tothe beliefs of some teachers in their study. Pollatschekand OHagan45found that the frequency of physicaleducation participation (daily versus twice a week) wasnot associated with students standardized math andreading test scores or affect towards school; similarresults were found for boys and girls.

Collectively, the results of these studies suggest thatphysical education may have favorable associations with

students cognitive skills and attitudes and their academicachievement, but the relationships are not universal andvary by outcome studied. Furthermore, increasing timefor physical education does not appear to have negativeassociations with academic achievement.

Nonintervention Studies. The four noninterventionstudies (two conducted in the United States and two

in other countries) examined associations betweenphysical education and academic performance usingcross-sectional designs (n=3) or secondary analyses ofan existing longitudinal data set (n=1). Three of the fourstudies were conducted at the elementary or middleschool level; the fourth study was completed with highschool students. All studies used standardized teststo assess academic achievement. Results were either

positive or neutral. Three of the studies found positiveassociations between time spent in physical educationor skills learned in physical education and indicatorsof academic achievement. As an example, one study51

Table 2b: School-Based Physical Education Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the

Outcomes of Academic Achievement

Variables in Physical EducationNonintervention Studies (N=4 Studies)*


OutcomesAcross the 4

NoninterventionStudies

Type of Relationship Observed Between PhysicalEducation Class and Academic Performance

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noted a positive association between standardizedEnglish language arts test scores and time spent inphysical education but found no such association formath scores. Another study52found small but signicant

associations between physical education and academicachievement in math and reading for girls who hadmore physical education (70300 minutes per week)compared with those getting lower amounts (035minutes per week); none of the associations weresignicant for boys. Dexter53found a combinationof positive associations and no association between

performance on sports learned in physical educationand an average of math and English test scores andgrades, depending on the sport; results were similar forboys and girls. The remaining study found no signicantassociations between physical education and academicperformance on state literacy and numeracy tests.54

There were no negative associations between physicaleducation and indicators of academic performance

across these four studies. Consistent with the results ofthe physical education intervention studies, the data fromthese four studies suggest physical education has somepositive associations with academic outcomes, but theseresults vary by outcome.

Strengths and Limitations of Methods.Thiscollection of studies has a number of strengths as well as

limitations. The studies were conducted across a range ofgrade levels and used a broad array of indicators relatedto cognitive skills, attitudes, and academic achievement.Furthermore, nearly half featured experimental designs,and half explored associations by gender. Severallimitations were noted by the authors of the studies,including small samples or samples with potential biases

that may affect the generalizability of the results (e.g.,university research/laboratory school populations orafuent populations). Several authors acknowledgedmeasurement issues, such as limited follow-up, notassessing precursors of academic achievement (e.g.,concentration, memory, or classroom behavior), or

Recess Studies: Highlights

All eight studies found one or morepositive associations between recessand indicators of cognitive skills,attitudes, and academic behavior.

Time spent in recess appears to have apositive relationship or no relationship

with childrens attention, concentration,and/or on-task classroom behavior.

Recess Studies

Eight studies (reported in six articles) examined therelationship between school recess, cognitive skills,attitudes, and/or academic behavior (see Figure 3,and Tables 3a and 3b). Six of the studies tested anintervention to examine how recess impacts theseindicators of academic performance. The other twodescriptive, nonintervention studies explored therelationships between recess and school adjustment

or classroom behavior. Appendix E includes summaryproles for each of the articles reviewed in this section.

FIGURE 3:

Type of Association Observed for CognitiveSkills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,

and Academic Achievement Outcomes

Across Al l Recess Studies(n=17 associations within 8 studies)


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Intervention Studies. The six intervention studies(all implemented in the United States) examined therelationship between recess, or increased physicalactivity during recess, and cognitive skills (attention

or concentration) and academic behavior (on-taskbehavior). All of these studies were conducted inelementary schools with students in kindergarten throughfourth grade, and all six employed an experimentalor quasi-experimental design.37,55-57 Most used trainedobservers to collect data on classroom and recessbehaviors, with multiple observation points. The data

collection follow-up period ranged from 0 to 4 monthsfollowing baseline. The interventions involved theintroduction of recess into the daily school schedule ormanipulating the timing of recess (e.g., holding recessafter varying lengths of class time).

Results across these six studies showed positive outcomesor no association. Three studies reported all positive

associations between more physical activity at recessand classroom behaviors.55-57Specically, Caterino andPolak55found that fourth-grade students who participatedin directed physical activity during recess (stretching andaerobic walking) had signicantly higher concentrationscores than those students who sat quietly in the libraryduring recess. Both studies that measured academicbehavior found a positive relationship between recess

and on-task behavior. Jarrett and colleagues56 observedthat children were less dgety, less listless, more focused,

and more on task when they had recess compared withwhen they did not have recess. Pellegrini and Davis57

found that students who engaged in physical activity (asopposed to sedentary behavior) during recess dgeted

less in the classroom after recess.

The three intervention studies by Pellegrini andcolleagues37reported both positive and nonsignicantassociations. These studies examined the relationshipsbetween the timing of recess (i.e., recess after 2.5hours versus 3 hours of classroom time) and students

behaviors during recess and students classroombehaviors before and after recess. Investigators foundthat students attention rates were lower after longerperiods of classroom work without a break than aftershorter periods. They also found that, in general, studentsattention was better after recess than before. Finally, theyfound that the type of behavior during recess did notaffect classroom attention after recess for any grade or

gender groups.

Nonintervention Studies.One of the twononintervention recess studies58 explored the impact ofthe frequency of recess on teacher reports of classroombehavior in a very large sample (n=11,529); theother59explored the impact of recess on observations ofindividual students cognitive and emotional adjustment

to school within one school (n=77). Barros, Silver, andStein58found that overall classroom behavior (based on

Table 3a: Recess Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skills andAttitudes and Academic Behaviors

Variables in Recess Intervention Studies(N=6 Studies)*

Total # of

PerformanceOutcomesAcross the 6Intervention

Studies

Type of Relationship ObservedBetween Recess and Academic Performance




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Table 3b: Recess Nonintervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes of Cognitive Skillsand Attitudes and Academic Behaviors

Variables in Recess NoninterventionStudies (N=2 Studies)*


OutcomesAcross the 2

NoninterventionStudies

Type of Relationship ObservedBetween Recess and Academic Performance


Cognitive Skills and Attitudes(N=1 Study) 2 1 1 0

Perceptions of school adjustment 2 1 1 0

Academic Behavior(N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0

On-task behavior (not dgeting) 1 1 0 0

Total 3 2 1 0

* Studies may have measured the relationship between recess and academic performance in more than one way (e.g., measured the

association between recess and perceptions of school adjustment and on-task behavior). Individual studies in this section measured between 1

and 2 different outcomes and may be represented in multiple cells of the table.

teacher ratings) was signicantly better for students whohad recess every day for at least 15 minutes than forthose who did not. Exploration of the impact of recesson individual students showed a positive association withend-of-year social competence and perceptions of schooladjustment for boys, but not for girls.59

Strengths and Limitations of Methods.These

studies feature several strengths as well as a fewnotable limitations. Six of the eight studies usedexperimental or quasi-experimental designs, and mostinvolved observations of student behaviors with multipleobservation points (e.g., 6, 12, or 32 observations). Thestudies focused on elementary-level students, primarilybecause recess is most common at the elementary grade

levels. Study authors reported a number of limitationsincluding small sample sizes (range of 2377 students inseven of the eight studies), and the inability in most of thestudies to analyze data by SES, race/ethnicity, or othersubgroups. In addition, the authors noted that classroom-level ratings of student behavior by the classroom teacher

United States and ve in other countries) (see Figure 4and Table 4). All nine of the studies were interventions.

Appendix F includes summary proles for each of thearticles reviewed in this section.

These studies examined how the introduction of briefphysical activities in a classroom setting affectedcognitive skills (e.g., aptitude, attention, memory);

attitudes (e.g., mood); academic behaviors (e.g., on-taskbehavior, concentration); and academic achievement(e.g., standardized test scores, reading literacy scores,math uency scores). The interventions involved theintroduction of physical activities by trained teachersor facilitators into the classroom setting, with activitieslasting 520 minutes per session. Physical activity

sessions or breaks typically were delivered on a dailyor regular basis. Intervention implementation periodsspanned from 1 day to 16 months, with most lasting23 months.

All but two of these studies were conducted with
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and achievement tests and teacher or trained observerratings of classroom behavior.

FIGURE 4:Type of Association Observed for CognitiveSkills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,

and Academic Achievement Outcomes AcrossAll Classroom Physical Activity Studies

(n=20 associations within 9 quantitative studies)

Positive Association (n=8)No Association (n=12)

Classroom Physical ActivityStudies: Highlights

Eight of the nine studies found positiveassociations between classroom-based physical activity and indicatorsof academic performance.

One study examined gender effects

and found no differences in outcomesby gender.

Results across the nine intervention studies showed

positive outcomes or no association. Four studiesreported all positive associations between classroomphysical activity and classroom behaviors andacademic achievement.60-63Specically, Della Valle andcolleagues61found using movement with seventh-gradelearners who had an active learning style enhancedtheir performance on a word recognition task. Maeda

and Randall

62

reported that second-grade studentsexhibited greater concentration and demonstrated highermath uency after engaging in brief movement breaksconsisting of 5 minutes of vigorous exercise 1 hourafter lunch. Similarly, Mahar et al.63observed greaterfrequency of verbal and motor behavior that followed

Four intervention studies reported positive andnonsignicant associations.64,66-68Fredericks et al.66

described improvements in spatial aptitude, reading skills,and math skills among rst-grade students exposed todaily classroom exercises focused on the developmentof perceptual and sensory motor skills. However, therewere no associations with other indicators of aptitude,such as perception, reasoning, memory, and verbalcomprehension or emotional indicators. In their feasibilitystudy, Lowden et al.68qualitatively described that

students and teachers perceived that student exposureto The Class Moves!program was positively relatedto improvements in on-task classroom behaviors andconcentration. Teachers, however, did not feel they couldrelate the program to academic or cognitive achievement.Molloy64observed that students exposed to 5 minutes,but not 10 minutes, of aerobic exercise improved their

arithmetic performance. Exposure to aerobic exercisewas unrelated to observed on-task behavior (attention)for all but a small sample of hyperactive students. Uhrichand Swalm67found that daily sessions to develop motorskills (bimanual coordination) through a sport cup-stacking exercise were associated with improvements in


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Table 4: Classroom Physical Activity Intervention Studies: Summary of the Outcomes ofCognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Classroom Physical ActivityIntervention Studies(N=9 Studies)*


OutcomesAcross the 9Intervention

Studies

Type of Relationship Observed Between Classroom

Physical Activity and Academic Performance



Attention/concentration 2 1 1 0

Visual/spatial skills 4 1 3 0

Memory 1 0 1 0Verbal/conceptual ability 1 0 1 0

Perceptual/motor ability (coordination) 2 0 2 0

Mood 1 0 1 0

Academic Behavior(N=1 Study) 1 1 0 0

Conduct (classroom behavior) 1 1 0 0

Academic Achievement(N=6 Studies) 8 5 3 0

Achievement test scores (e.g., math,reading, language arts) 8 5 3 0

Total 20 8 12 0

* One qualitative study (Lowden68) and one quantitative study (Maeda and Randall62) that did not include signicance testing were not

included in these results. Studies may have measured the relationship between classroom physical activity and academic performance

in more than one way (e.g., measured the associations among classroom physical activities and ability, classroom behaviors, and

standardized test scores). Individual studies in this section measured between 1 and 11 different outcomes.

16 months and was designed to complement 80minutes of weekly physical education. Analyses bygender showed similar results.

Collectively, eight of the nine studies reviewed suggestthat classroom-based physical activities may havefavorable associations with indicators of cognitivefunctioning, academic behaviors, and/or academicachievement. Furthermore, there was no evidence thatallotting classroom time for these activities was negatively

follow-up dates. When reported, study populationsrepresented an array of racial and ethnic backgrounds.Limitations reported by study authors include smallsample sizes, with all but two studies having fewer than100 students, and the inability to analyze data by SES,race/ethnicity, or other subgroups. Others noted thatclassroom observers typically were not blinded to studycondition. Some authors also noted concerns aboutgroup comparability at baseline and its potential impacton determining an intervention effect.


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Extracurricular Physical ActivityStudies

Nineteen studies (reported in 14 articles) examinedthe relationship between involvement in extracurricularphysical activity (such as interscholastic sports or otherphysical activities outside of the regular school day) andacademic performance (see Figure 5, and Tables 5aand 5b). Nine studies focused on involvement in schoolinterscholastic sport teams; the other 10 focused on otherschool-related extracurricular physical activities. AppendixG includes summary proles for each of the 14 articlesreviewed in this section.

FIGURE 5:

Type of Assoc iation Observed for CognitiveSkills and Attitudes, Academic Behaviors,

and Academic Achievement Outcomes AcrossAll Extracurricular Physical Activity Studies

(n=135 associations within 19 studies)



Negative Association (n=3)

Interscholastic School Sports

Extracurricular Physical ActivityStudies: Highlights

Nearly all the associations betweenextracurricular physical activity andindicators of academic performancewere either positive (52%) or neutral(46%).

Grade point average was positivelyassociated with extracurricular physicalactivity 12 of the 22 times it wasmeasured.

The two different interventions aimedat improving academic performancethrough extracurricular physical activity

had some positive impacts on studentsgrades and/or verbal and conceptualskills.

Two studies examined the relationshipbetween extracurricular physicalactivity and dropout rates and foundthat participation was associated with

decreased high school dropout rates.

Three of the nine studies were cross-sectional, collectingdata at one time point; six were longitudinal andinvolved a secondary analysis of data collected atbaseline and 35 years later. Two of the nine studieshad small samples (85136); the remaining studies hadlarger sample sizes (88314,249).

These studies varied in measurement of academic


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The studies that explored the relationship betweenschool records of academic achievement and studentparticipation in interscholastic sports found mostlypositive and neutral results. For example, one study74

of eighth-grade students found that participation ininterscholastic sports was associated with higher mathgrades, higher math standardized test scores, and higheroverall GPAs; however, another study72 of 12th-gradestudents found no relationship between varsity sportsparticipation and grades. Two studies75,77examined theimpact of sports on high school dropout rates and foundthat participants were signicantly less likely to drop outof school compared with nonparticipants.

Two studies75,76 found that the relationship betweenacademic achievement and varsity sports participationwas inconsistent, showing positive, negative, and noassociation, depending on the outcome measured andthe grade level of the students. Fredricks and Eccles76

found participation in seventh-grade school sports wasassociated with a decreased school value in eighthand 11th grades but was associated with increasedresiliency in 11th grade. Yin and Moore75 found thatstudents who reported participation in interscholasticsports in eighth grade showed signicantly lower testscores for that year compared with students who didnot participate. However, as these same students moved

through high school, those differences disappeared,showing no differences in test scores between sportparticipants and nonparticipants in the 10th or 12thgrades. Hawkins and Mulkeys71 exploration of therelationship between interscholastic sports participationand teacher ratings of students academic abilityshowed no relationship between participation andacademic ability; however, other measures of academicbehavior and cognitive skills and attitudes showedpositive relationships or no relationship, varying bygender. As an example, male athletes were more likelyto plan to attend college than nonathletes, and bothmale and female athletes showed greater interest in

Seven of the nine studies examined gendereffects69-72,74,75,76 on academic performance; ve of theseven studies found at least one signicant differenceby gender; however, overall, 68% of the associations

by gender showed no relationship. One study76 alsoexamined results by race and SES. No other subgroup ordemographic analyses were reported in the other studies.

Other School-Related ExtracurricularPhysical Activity

Ten studies focused on extracurricular physical activitiesorganized through the school but conducted outside theregular school day (e.g., after school). Seven studiesexamined the effects of an intervention,2,34and the otherthree were descriptive,79,80,78with sample sizes rangingfrom 35 to 4,264. Measures of academic performanceincluded grades, math scores, homework completion,

and attendance.

Intervention Studies. One intervention article2

focused on physical activity opportunities after schoolusing six different studies. This article, which focusedon studies conducted in the United States, assessedthe impact of a life skills program with an emphasison improving physical tness on students self-reported

grades, school attendance, and self-concept. Theprogram was taught after school in a sample of middleschools, high schools, and community centers. Aspart of the program, students completed an individualexercise program as well as instruction about relatedtopics such as self-assessment, goal setting, tness, andexercise planning. Program impact was evaluated atsix sites immediately after the program. Results showedpositive associations between program participation andacademic performance (grades and attendance) or nosignicant relationships. The positive ndings (for self-concept, school attendance, and self-reported grades)were concentrated in the community site, which had the


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Cognitive Skills and Attitudes (N=7 Studies) 48 28 18 2

Self-esteem/self-efcacy/self-concept 19 5 4 0

Academic self-concept/competence 3 2 1 0

Locus of control 5 4 1 0Educational aspirations/potential 4 4 0 0

Interest in class 4 3 1 0

Mood 8 1 7 0

Positive academic attitudes 3 3 0 0

School value 4 0 2 2

School attachment 4 4 0 0

Resiliency 4 2 2 0

Academic Behavior (N=3 Studies) 34 15 19 0

Conduct (discipline) 4 0 4 0

Enrollment in academic track/science class 4 2

2 0

School completion 1 1 0 0

Attendance 6 2 4 0

Prepared for class 4 0 4 0

Homework completion

2 2 0 0

Attend college 4 2 2 0

Dropout rates/graduation 9 6 3 0

Academic Achievement (N=10 Studies) 24 13 10 1

Achievement test scores (e g math reading

limited the ability to establish the temporal relationshipbetween the variables. Relatively few studies examineddata by race/ethnicity, and only two explored physicalactivity interventions. Reports were unclear whether

sport participation required a minimal level of academicachievement, a requirement that could bias the samples.

Several authors also acknowledged limitations such asthe need to include measures of social inuence (e.g.,parental support) in future research, the need to look moreclosely at how level of participation or competitiveness in

sport might affect academic achievement, and the factthat some of the associations found were relatively weak.

Table 5b: Extracurricular Physical Activity Nonintervention Studies: Summary of theOutcomes of Cognitive Skills and Attitudes, Academic Behavior, and Academic Achievement

Variables in Extracurricular PhysicalActivity Intervention Studies(N=12 Studies)*

Total # of

PerformanceOutcomesAcross the 12

InterventionStudies

Type of Relationship Observed Between ExtracurricularPhysical Activity and Academic Performance



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SUMMARY

This report identied peer-reviewed studies and publishedreports addressing the association between physical

activity, including physical education, and indicatorsof academic performance, including those related tocognitive skills and attitudes, academic behaviors, andacademic achievement.

Overall Findings

Overall, what do the results of these studiessay about the relationship between physicalactivity and academics, and what does itmean for schools?

Collectively, the results suggest that physical activityis either positively related to academic performance

(50.5% of the associations summarized) or that thereis not a demonstrated relationship between physicalactivity and academic performance (48% of theassociations summarized). In addition, increasingtime during the school day for physical activitydoes not appear to take away from academicperformance. This pattern of having positiverelationships or no relationships, along with the lack

of negative relationships, was consistent throughoutthe results, despite the heterogeneous nature ofthe included studies, and is consistent with otherpublished reviews.15,81

School boards, school administrators, and principalscan feel condent that maintaining or increasingtime dedicated for physical activity during the schoolday will not have a negative impact on academicperformance, and it may positively impact studentsacademic performance.

What kinds of academic outcomes were

Which outcomes were most positive?

Positive associations were found across measures ofacademic achievement, academic behavior, andcognitive skills and attitudes, but there are someinteresting patterns for different outcomes within thesecategories. Seven articles describing interventionstudies (three school-based physical education, tworecess, one classroom-based physical activity, andone extracurricular activity) evaluated the relationshipbetween physical activity and academic behaviors,such as classroom conduct.2,41,42,50,56,57,63 The majorityof these articles (86%) found at least one positiveassociation with academic behavior outcomes. Giventhese ndings, physical activity interventions may offerone approach to improving academic behaviors (e.g.,classroom conduct) in some youth.

Does physical activity have any negativerelationship with grades or test scores?

Very few of the ndings in the studies reviewed werenegative (only 4 associations of 251 examined), apercentage small enough to reasonably be expectedby chance. This pattern of results is consistent with

other reports15,16 that suggest that adding physicalactivity to the school day does not detract fromacademic performance. The evidence suggests thatsuperintendents and principals can devote school timeto physical activity without concern that it will lowerstudent test scores.

Why are some of the study results positivewhereas others show no relationship?

There are a number of possible explanations. Someof the studies had relatively small samples, which canmake it more difcult to nd statistically signicant


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activity took place, individual student differences(e.g., in motivation), and levels and quality ofimplementation for intervention studiesmay helpexplain the different results among the studies.

Findings for Physical Activityby Context

Is school-based physical education related toacademic performance?

The study results suggest that school-based physicaleducation either leads to a positive result or isassociated with no change in academic performance.Overall, 11 of 14 studies found one or more positiveassociations between physical education andindicators of cognitive skills and attitudes, academic

behavior, and/or academic achievement. Nearly halfthe associations (49.5%) between physical educationand academic performance were positive; nearly allremaining associations in this context area showed norelationship.

The studies also suggest that increased time spentin physical education is not likely to detract from

academic performance even when less time is devotedto subjects other than physical education. Across thenine studies that examined the relationship betweentime spent in physical education and academicperformance, 16 outcomes were positive and 31showed no association. No negative associationswere found.

Is recess related to academic performance?

Yes, for some outcomes. Eight studies meeting thecriteria of this review looked at the impact of physicalactivity during recess on academic performance. Of

None of the studies reported negative relationships,which indicates that recess does not appear to detractfrom students focus in the classroom.

Are physical activity breaks during classrelated to academic performance?

Yes, for some outcomes. Nearly all studies (eight ofnine) in this category found that offering physicalactivity breaks during standard classroom instructionmay have favorable associations with someindicators of cognitive functioning (e.g., attention/concentration); academic behaviors (e.g., classroomconduct); and/or academic achievement (e.g., testscores). Of the individual outcomes studied, 40%of associations between physical activity breaksand academic performance were positive and 60%showed no relationship.

None of the studies found negative associations.Classroom physical activity breaks do not appearto have a negative relationship with academicperformance. Indeed, classroom teachers can includephysical activity breaks as one strategy to promoteacademic-related benets for students. Furthermore,incorporating brief physical activity breaks into theclassroom might contribute to students overall levels of

physical activity and health.82

Is participation in extracurricular physicalactivities at school related to academicperformance?

Yes, for some outcomes. More than half of theassociations examined in these studies were positive(52% overall), and almost none were negative(2%). Of note, GPA was positively associated withextracurricular physical activity 12 of the 22 timesit was measured. Two studies also examined theassociation between extracurricular activities and
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Findings by Gender, OtherDemographic Characteristics,

and Research DesignDo the results vary by gender?

Relatively few studies examined differences inassociations by gender, and there were no distinctpatterns. Of studies that did examine data bygender, a few found differences, but most did not.For example, eight of the studies on school-basedphysical education examined data by gender.Six found no differences by gender; one foundeffects favoring boys (higher-level motor skills wereassociated with greater increases in reading and mathscores among boys than girls); and one found effectsfavoring girls (greater time spent in physical education

was related to higher reading and math scores for girlsbut not for boys).

How do the studies and results differ by gradelevel?

Studies of recess and classroom-based physical activitytended to be from elementary school settings, and

studies of extracurricular physical activity tended to befrom secondary school settings.

Overall, the pattern of results appeared slightlymore positive in the secondary school setting. Ofthe associations examined among elementary youthonly, 43% were positive, 56% were neutral, and 1%were negative. At the secondary level, 55% of theassociations examined were positive, 43% wereneutral, and 2% were negative.

Do the results vary by race/ethnicity?

Very few studies examined the relationships between

no differences in academic performance betweenAsian and Caucasian students.65A study of an 8-weekmovement intervention found that language spoken(Afrikaans, English, and Other), used as a proxy

indicator for race/ethnicity, may have explained somedifferences in childrens spatial aptitude.66

Do the results vary by research design?

Not much variation in results by research design wasnoted. Although many factors inuence a studysquality, experimental or quasi-experimental researchdesigns are generally regarded as more rigorous.The pattern of associations in studies with either ofthese types of design had very similar results. In the29 studies using experimental or quasi-experimentaldesigns, 50% (55 of 109) of associations were positive,and 49% (53 of 109) were not signicant. Less than1% (1 of 109) of the associations were negative.

Strengths and Limitationsof Review

What are the strengths of this review?

This review has a number of strengths. It covers 23years of research; it involved a systematic process forlocating, reviewing, and coding the studies; articleswere obtained using an extensive array of search termsand international databases; articles were reviewed bymultiple trained coders; and the articles cover a broadarray of contexts in which youth participate in school-based physical activities. Furthermore, a majority (64%)of studies included in the review were interventionstudies, and a majority (76%) were longitudinal.

What are the limitations of this review?
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results were based on counts of statistical ndings,and this, in essence, had the effect of allowingindividual studies containing multiple comparisonsto have a greater inuence on the ndings as a

whole. The number of statistical ndings in any givenstudy ranged from 1 to 32; given those differences,it becomes clear that a single study with 32comparisons would have inuenced the overall resultsmore than a study that included only 1 comparison.

In addition, the breadth of the review, while revealinga variety of study designs, measures, and populations,often made comparisons and summaries difcult. Forexample, similar constructs were often dened and/ormeasured differently across studies. Even something asseemingly consistent as standardized test scores canvary from state to state. Therefore, these inconsistencieslimit the ability of this or any review to draw specicconclusions across all studies.

For the same reason, it was not appropriate to makebroad statements about effect sizes. Although thestudies in this review include examples of moderateand large effect sizes,47,51,63 there were not enoughstudies analyzing the same variables in any givencategory to make summary statements about themagnitude of associations between physical activity

and academic performance variables. As a result,conclusions do not summarize magnitudes of effectsizes and are intentionally broad.

Implications for Future Researchor Evaluation

What other research or evaluation needs to bedonetofurthertheeldinthisarea?

Within the contexts reviewed, there were relatively few

Less than half of the studies described effect sizes ormagnitudes of the associations observed. Reportingof effect sizes can guide researchers and practitionerstowards interventions most likely to impact outcomes

of interest.

Although nearly all of the reviewed studies describeda practical framework for the research, few of thestudies articulated a theoretical basis for the work orexplicitly described how the ndings informed theorydevelopment. Theoretical specicity may enableresearchers to more easily identify relevant bodies ofwork from other disciplines, consider new relationshipsand mechanisms of action, align and strengthenintervention design and measurement, and ultimatelyprogress the eld more effectively and efciently.

Improved understanding of the specic cognitive andbehavioral impacts of particular physical activities

could inform intervention developers and improvethe match between interventions, populations, andeducational goals. For example, compared withmeasures of cognitive skills and attitudes, academicbehaviors such as on-task classroom behavior orfollowing instructions were less likely to be examinedas proximal outcomes of physical activity or potentialmediators of academic achievement.

Future research should further examine the relationshipbetween school-based physical activity and academicperformance in subpopulations of students (e.g.,based on gender, race/ethnicity, or SES). Results fromthis type of research could help physical educationteachers and physical activity coordinators applyndings of programs and interventions to meet theneeds of particular groups of students.

Future research should be developed in consultationwith educators (e.g., school administrators and staff)and informed by research across disciplines, such as


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Future research and evaluation would benet fromidentifying uniform ways to measure key outcomes,including both physical activity and academicperformance outcomes. Similarly, future studies

would benet from larger sample sizes and strongerresearch designs that include longitudinal follow-up,as appropriate. Adequate follow-up of interventionshas been more limited in physical educationcompared with other contexts.

Implications for Schools

What are the policy and practice implicationsfrom this review?

Schools should continue to offer or increaseopportunities for physical activity. There is evidencethat physical activity may help improve academic

performance (including grades and standardized testscores) in some situations. Increasing or maintainingtime dedicated to physical education does notadversely impact academic performance.

The studies in this review also suggest that physicalactivity can impact cognitive skills and attitudes,important components of improved academic

performance. This includes enhanced concentrationand attention as well as improved classroom behavior.

Taking all of the evidence into account, schools shouldstrive to meet the National Association for Sport andPhysical Educations recommendation of daily physicaleducation and offer students a balanced academicprogram that includes opportunities for a variety ofdaily physical activities.

What are the current recommendations forstudents physical activity?

To enable students to meet these recommended levelsof physical activity, the National Association for Sportand Physical Education recommends that all pre-Kthrough grade 12 schools implement a comprehensive

school physical activity program, which includesquality physical education; physical activity before,during, and after school, including recess and otherphysical activity breaks; extracurricular, noncompetitivephysical activity clubs; interscholastic sports; and walk-and bike-to-school initiatives.35

How can schools promote physical activity atschool?

Physical activity can be included in the schoolenvironment in a number of ways without detractingfrom academic performance. Studies highlightpotential benets of physical activity in physicaleducation classes, during recess, in regular

classrooms, and through extracurricular sports andother physical activity opportunities.

School-based physical education: To maximizethe potential benets of student participation inphysical education class, schools and physicaleducation teachers can consider increasingthe amount of time students spend in physical

education class or adding components toincrease the quality of physical education class.Studies reviewed here showed that programswere able to increase physical education timeby increasing the number of days per weekor the length of class time, adding trainedphysical education instructors, supplementingprograms with community resources, and usingoutside facilities (e.g., swimming pools). Inaddition, the studies reviewed here exploredseveral different strategies for enhancing thequality of physical education class, requiringvarying levels of resources. These range from
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superintendents, principals, and teachers canfeel condent that providing recess to students ona regular basis may benet academic behaviors(e.g., attention), facilitate social development,85

and contribute to overall physical activity86 andits associated health benets.

Classroom-based physical activity: Movementactivities and physical activity breaks aresimple ways for classroom teachers to enhancestudent physical activity and possibly academicperformance. Most interventions described inthis review used short breaks (520 minutes)that required little or no teacher preparation,special equipment, or resources. As an example,interventions such as speed (cup) stackingcould be a center or activity station. Simplemovement-based learning techniques (e.g.,walking around the perimeter of the classroom

while learning vocabulary or using musicand rhythmic movement to enhance memorytasks) could be incorporated into large grouplessons. Short exercise breaks (e.g., 5 minutesof walking or 10 minutes of prescribed exercise)could be introduced into the classroom routineprior to teaching subjects that require intensestudent concentration.

Extracurricular physical activities: The evidencein this review suggests that superintendents,principals, and athletic directors can developor continue school-based sports programs(e.g., intramurals or physical activity clubs andinterscholastic sports programs), without concernthat participation in such activities wouldhave negative associations with academicperformance. Increasing or maintainingtime dedicated to physical activity does notadversely impact academic performance.Indeed, studies suggest there may be a range

groups to incorporate physical activities intotheir programs and events (e.g., fundraisers,special activities).

Collectively, the ndings from this review supportthe National Association for Sport and PhysicalEducations recommendations for a comprehensiveschool physical activity program.35 The results alsosuggest that physical education and physical activitymay help advance academic performance for manystudents and should not hinder academic progress.
http:///reader/full/program.35http:///reader/full/program.35http:///reader/full/program.35


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Activity and Student Achievement