Aboriginal Peoples Of Canada

The Importance of Words

The word “Aboriginal” includes all First Nation, Metis and Inuit people, according to the Constitution Act of 1982.

You may have heard other names, including “Indian”, “Native”, and “Indigenous”, but these have different meanings to different people.

To some, these words do not properly represent the huge variety of cultures found in Canada’s aboriginal community.

Aboriginal People Before European settlers arrived in Canada

about 500 years ago, First Nations and Inuit peoples had the country pretty much to themselves.

They lived in groups called tribes, with many different ways of life and traditions.

A tribe was usually subdivided into bands or villages of a few families.

As time passed the tribal community began to develop a national identity. Each community shared the same language and culture and it also developed its own political organization and power over its own territory. For this reason, the different groups of Aboriginal peoples are now called nations.

Some were nomadic, which means they moved from place to place while hunting and gathering food.

Others were farmers who settled down in a particular area.

The weather and the type of land where each tribe lived helped to shape their traditions and culture.

Aboriginal People

Aboriginal People There are 52 aboriginal languages spoken in Canada! There are many different aboriginal languages in

Canada, but some of them are related to each other by a common ancestral language.

In fact, different tribes across Canada can be grouped together into 11 “language families” based on how their languages are related.

Some examples of language families include Athapaskan, Algonquian and Iroquoian.

Video = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULyRPpYHxdo&feature=related

Eastern Woodlands

Eastern Woodlands

Two main First Nations groups lived in the eastern woodlands; the Iroquois, who were farmers, and the Algonquians, who were hunters.

The Algonquian The woodlands were home to deer, bear,

moose, caribou, fish and even seals and whales on the coast. The Algonquian tribes had developed great skills and tools to hunt them.

They also gathered food that grew wild, like wild rice and berries. You can imagine why they needed to move around a lot more than the Iroquois! They usually built smaller homes that could be taken down easily, like tipis and wigwams.

The Mi’kmaq Nation Maritime Provinces Algonquian They were migratory, which means they moved

from place to place according to the seasons. In the spring, summer and fall, they lived near the

seashore (salmon, eel, lobster, clams, seals) In the winter, they moved closer inland to hunt

larger animals (moose, caribou, bear…)The continuing search of food was a central part of

their life. The main job of the chiefs was to assign hunting and gathering territories to each family

Shelter

1.Homes are called wigwams2.Usually put together by women.3.Made using poles tied together.4.Birchbark was used for the covering.5.There was a hole in the top for smoke to escape.6.Floor was made of animal fur.7.The door was also animal hide.

Mi’kmaq nationGlooscap Legend:

Glooscap, the first human, was created out of a bolt of lightening in the sand and remains a figure that appears in many of the Mi’kmaq legends. These legends are stories that are passed down from generation to generation and tell of the Mi’kmawq culture.Glooscap is also believed to have brought the Mi'kmaq stoneware, knowledge of good and evil, fire, tobacco fishing nets, and canoes, making him a cultural hero.

The Mi’kmaq Nation:Government Basic unit in Mi’kmaw society was the

extended family (30-200 people), which was led by a chief or sagamore (elected ruler among First Nations of Eastern Canada)

2 fundamental principles: Respect for the rights of the people Respect and preservation of the

environment

The Mi’kmaq Nation:Government System of self-government Leaders were appointed by the people Elders opinions were important Disputes were settled through mediation Contact and trade with Europeans

eventually led to the expansion of their political structure.

Mi’kmaw territory was divided into 7 geographical districts.

  Local Council Chief

District Council Chief

Grand Council Chief

Powers      

Duties      

Geographic Constituency

     

Leadership Characteristics

     

 

The Mi’kmaq Nation:3 levels of Government

Local Council Chief Presides over the Council of Elders Council of Elders was usually made up of the heads of families or representatives

Responsibilities consisted of: Making decisions within local areas Take care of supplies, dogs, canoes, hunting,

emergencies (providing for villages) Were teachers and role models for the young Training hunters

Local Council Chief cont’d

The Local Chief was always male and came from a prominent family

They were of good character and they were very good hunters

District Council Chief Total of 7, 1 for each of the

7 Mi’Kmaq districts

Presides over council of local chiefs

Responsible for several villages/communities within his district

Met during spring, summer or fall to settle problems such as peace and war

Act as arbitrator - would listen to both parties and settle dispute

District Council ChiefThe responsibilities of the Chief included:

Attending Local Council meetings

Take care of problems among districts, villages, nations

District Chief was eldest male of large powerful family

Good hunters

Grand Council Chief Grand Chief is most

important When he speaks,

everyone listens. Presides over Grand

Council

Responsibilities included: Defending territory Taking care of any

orphaned children Help with providing food

and supplies

Grand Council Chief

The Grand chief had to have an exceptional character

Was an excellent hunter

2 ways to become a Grand Chief:

Hereditary (unless the father did not feel they were worthy of the position)

Survive in woods for several days without food or water. Must make a camp for 2 people and wait to see if another person arrives. If this occurs, he is capable of being Grand Chief

Mi’kmaq Government Pre Contact

Local Council Chief District Council Chief Grand Council Chief

Powers Presides over Council of Elders

Presides over local chiefs Presides over Grand Council and local and district councils

Duties Made decisions for local areas, took care of supplies – dogs, canoes, hunting.Took care of emergencies, acted as teachers and role models, trained hunters

Acted as arbitrator, attend local council meetings, took care of problems among districts, villages

Defend territory, took care of orphaned children, help with providing food and supplies for community.

Geographic Constituency Local area, village or community

There is one for each of the 7 districts each made up of several villages, communities

Responsible for all 7 Mi’kmaq districts

Leadership Characteristics Male from a prominent family, good character, good hunters

Eldest male from a large powerful family, good hunters

Exceptional character, excellent hunters, hereditary, survive in woods and create a new camp

The Iroquois

Southern Ontario The Hurons lived north of Lake Ontario and the Iroquois

confederacy lived south of the lake. The name Canada comes from the Huron-Iroquois word

Kanata, which means village or community. Video = http://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1jG58nghRo&feature=related

Every Iroquois belonged to a clan, named after an animal; for example, Bear, Turtle, Wolf.

The basic unit was the matrilineal family (combination of all the individual families descended from the oldest living woman)

If she was a member of the Bear clan, all daughters, grandsons/daughters belonged to the Bear clan. Husbands were from other clans or nations.

The Iroquois The Iroquois used the rich soil where

they lived to grow corn, tobacco, squash and beans. In fact, they were so good at farming that they traded their extra corn and tobacco with tribes further north for animal pelts and porcupine quills.

Corn, beans and squash were called the Three Sisters, as they were grown together

They lived in towns of up to 2500 people and shared large “longhouses” made from elm or cedar trees.

Longhouses

The Iroquois Confederacy

Founded by Dekanahwideh, who convinced the 5 nations to stop the war amongst one another.

Their motto was “one heart, one mind, one law.”

The Confederacy originally consisted of 5 nations: the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, and the Seneca.

They were later joined by the Tuscaroras and the Confederacy became known as the Six Nations.

Known today as the Haudenosaunee

The Iroquois ConfederacyGovernment Men became chiefs, but were chosen by the Clan

Mother (oldest woman, who had the power to remove a chief and appoint another.

Village Council: Looked after village matters. Council members were all men, headed by the village chief. All village council members represented various clans in a village and were appointed by their clan matrons.

Council of a Nation: Dealt with affairs of the nation. Members were head chiefs from all the villages in a nation.

Confederacy or Grand Council: Looked after issues affecting all the nations in the confederacy. Members were a delegation of chiefs from each of the nations (50 chiefs in all). All were men, but were chosen by women. All members were equal – there was no council chief. They practiced a form of representative democracy in which votes were given to delegates from all Nations in annual meetings. Decisions required a consensus.

The Hurons

Lived north of Lake Ontario They were successful traders who

wanted to build a monopoly and discouraged other nations from trading with one another.

They used birch bark canoes to transport the produce from farms.

They were rivals with Iroquois confederacy and both groups often raided the other.

Shelter The Iroquoians were farmers who did not need to

move around so their houses could be much larger and sturdier. They built elm or cedar-bark “longhouses” which were big enough for several families to live in together.

Plains Tribes

Plains Tribes One time, there were as many as sixty million

bison (or buffalo) roaming the plains region! They thrived in the extreme weather of the Canadian prairies and were the single most important animal to the tribes living there (including the Blackfoot, the Plains Cree and the Sioux).

The culture of these peoples had everything to do with the bison. They were used for food, tipis, clothing, containers and tools. Their traditions were also closely tied to these animals and to their natural surroundings.

Later on, horses became very important to their culture when Europeans brought them to Canada. Before horses, they walked on foot or used dogs to pull their packs.

Plains Tribes and the Travois

The travois was made from 2 long poles lashed together and contained netting to carry goods.

The Plains people developed it to easily transport children and belongings.

The Blackfoot Plain Tribe in Alberta Two examples of their religious beliefs

were the medicine bundle and the Sun Dance

The BlackfootThe Medicine Bundle•Protection against harm•A rawhide bag that contained medicine pipe, feathers from an eagle or owl, sweet grass, chokecherry wood, pieces of tobacco, stones etc…•They were passed on to members of the nation during a ceremony or a young Blackfoot could go into the wilderness for days without food or sleep. He would pray to the spirits for advice. Eventually he would fall asleep and dream of the items that had special powers to him. He would then go and collect those items.

The BlackfootThe Sun Dance•Held in early summer•People who suffered from bad luck during the past year, or hoped for special help in the year ahead, took part.•Young men who took part stayed in a tipi together for several days. They fasted and were prepared by the shaman (medicine man).•The shaman would make pairs of cuts in each person’s chest or back. Under the skin he looped leather strips, which were connected to the center pole.•Each person then danced, gazing into the sun and seeking power there. He pulled on the ropes, until the flesh gave away and he was free.•The scars that formed after a few weeks were looked upon as a badge of courage.

The Sun Dance

ShelterOn the Plains most tribes moved around a lot to hunt buffalo and gather plants for food. The most common home was a tipi, built with long poles that were tied together at the top and covered by buffalo hides.Often they had to travel great distances to find tall straight trees that would make good tipi poles, so they brought them along whenever they moved camp. Tipis were built and set up very precisely so that they would stay dry, keep extra warm in the winter and stand up against strong winds.

Plateau Tribes

Plateau Tribes The tribes of the Plateau in British Columbia

depended on two very important rivers, the Fraser and the Thomson, to support their life. These rivers were full of prized salmon which they ate and traded, as well as trout and whitefish.

Deer, caribou, elk, and mountain sheep living nearby were important for food too. The tribes also used the rivers for traveling by canoe and for transporting goods to trade with other groups.

Since there were many trees on the land around the rivers, many tribes made log huts covered with bark for shelter. The major tribes from the Plateau include the Interior Salish, Kootenay, and Athapaskan.

Shelter Many of the Plateau tribes lived in log huts covered with

bark or grass. In the winter, some lived in “pit houses.” These houses were holes dug into the ground, with a cone-shaped roof held up by wooden poles, and covered with branches and dirt. They used a ladder to enter and leave through an opening at the top.

Northwest Coast

Northwest Coast Known as the salmon people The Haida, Tlingit and the other groups from that area. There was plenty of food everywhere, from deer and

bear to ducks, seals and fish, not to mention all kinds of fruits and edible plants.

Thousands of pacific salmon would swim up the rivers each year, a main source of food for the peoples of the coast.

Their way of life revolved around their natural surroundings; the towering cedar trees were used to make boats, totem poles, houses, fish nets, baskets and clothing, which meant that most tribes were skilled at carpentry, spinning and weaving.

And since different foods were found in specific areas during certain times of the year, tribes would often move from their winter villages to other sites throughout the seasons, then back again to their home base.

Northwest CoastThe Totem Pole•Examples of artwork•Each part of the pole reveals something about an important person, spirit or event in a family’s past history.•They were carved out of cedar trees with stones

•Video = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=648gwElcPzU&feature=related

Northwest Coast The community was divided into two groups –

nobles and commoners. A person was born into one group or the

other. The nobles had more rights; for example,

they had the right to fish in the best locations.

Within each group, the members were ranked in order of importance.

The chief ranking nobleman was the chief

Northwest Coast: The Potlatch

The word potlatch means giving Property was shared among the members of the community

and was a means of dealing with economic inequalities within a village

It is a ceremony given by a family for another family/families The host gave presents to each of the guests. The most valuable gift went to the highest-ranking guest and

so on down the line. Presents could include huge amounts of food, cedar canoes other goods.

The guest receiving the gifts were like witnesses to a contract confirming the host host’s step up the ladder of success.

It was usually held to mark a major event, such as a marriage, a birth or the naming of a new chief.

All important guests were bound to respond by holding their own potlatch

Modern Day Potlatch

Subarctic

Subarctic This part of Canada covers a huge area and

includes many different tribes, including the Gwich’in up in the Yukon, the Dene in the northwest, The Cree and Ojibwa in the East, to name a few.

Even though there were a wide variety of tribes in this region, there weren’t that many people altogether living there.

That’s partly because the weather is extreme and harsh and partly because many of the larger animals for hunting would migrate south during the winter.

Subarctic Many bands would live by

following the herds wherever they went, so they were always moving from place to place.

Since life was harder in this part of Canada, different bands worked together a lot to help each other survive. People would form groups to do certain tasks, like trapping, gathering berries and fishing. They would also trade food and medicine.

Arctic

The Arctic Inuit

It’s not surprising that the Inuit culture is quite different from other groups, when you consider the cold, harsh environment of the Arctic.

There are no trees, lots of deep snow and thick ice, and unique animals, such as seals, walrus, whales and caribou

To get around on the snow and ice, hunt and stay warm, the Inuit people developed a very unique way of life. They created different kinds of hunting gear, like harpoons; they had dog sleds and kayaks to get around; and built temporary igloos for shelter when on hunting expeditions.

The Inuit people knew a great deal about their natural surroundings and passed this knowledge on to their children through storytelling and other important traditions.

Inuit Technology Sunglasses: Made of ivory or

wood, these goggles would have thin slits through which a person could look without being blinded by sun reflecting off the snow

Cheap Energy: They made lamps of stone or whalebone, with moss for a wick and seal blubber for fuel

Transportation: Dog sleds, kayaks

Harpoons: the head was made from stone and was attached with walrus-hide line to a shaft of walrus tusk

video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6UIrgAFW3aQ

Video of where I lived (Tuktoyaktuk) = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFJeYbWkcms&feature=related

ShelterWhile hunting out on the sea ice, they would build igloos only as a temporary shelter from the wind and cold. However some Inuit groups began to use igloos for the entire winter.Other winter houses were built with stones and covered with sod. The coastal Inuit sometimes built larger homes that were partly dug into the ground and covered by seal skin or sod roofs. To make summer homes, animal hides were sewn together and held up with sticks or whale ribs.

Aboriginal Clothing

Food It took a lot of patience and skill, and an

understanding of nature’s cycles, to be able to get enough food to survive all year in Canada. First Nation and Inuit peoples used many different strategies: hunting, gathering wild plants, farming, and trading food between tribes. One thing was for certain; nothing was ever wasted, especially the animals.

Go to the following web site to see how every part of the Bison was used:

http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/eco_info/topics/first_nations_inuit/food.cfm

MedicineOver 500 drugs in use day originated in Aboriginal societies.For example, they used a drink made from cedar bark and needles to cure scurvy. (vitamin C)James Lind took this information and used lime juice, which led to the discovery of vitamins.They also used willow and poplar bark for aches and pains, which is now in aspirin.

Picture is a Blackfoot Shaman

TradeEconomies

Trade in aboriginal communities was based, partly on the need for goods found in other areas and partly on establishing and maintaining friendly relations with neighbouring peoples.

The exchange of gifts and kindness reinforced alliances and brought prestige to the giver.

Wampum The most frequently

traded items were arrowheads, tools, and shells.

Aboriginal peoples traded shell beads known as wampum.

Wampum was threaded on a string or woven into belts.

Wampum Wampum were threaded

onto a string or woven into belts. The patterns represented events or alliances.

  Many Aboriginal people

in the northeastern part of North America used the wampum as a way of recording and sending messages.

World View and Economic Structures

Aboriginal Peoples spiritual philosophy reflects a close relationship between their economies and the natural world.

Aboriginal peoples believed that nature was a continuous web in which humans were equal, but not superior, to the land, plants, animals, and water.

Most Aboriginal societies practised a lifestyle of sustainable development in which they took from the environment only what they needed in order to survive.

This philosophy enabled them to use their resources efficiently and with little waste.

Property Ownership

Aboriginal people did not belief that they owned the land, but rather were entrusted to preserve the land for future generations.

When the Europeans arrived, they considered North America as new lands and claimed them as their own territories and the resources located on them.

As Europeans expanded, the Aboriginal nations began to claim title (a legitimate claim to land)to the lands they traditionally occupied.

Violence and wars often broke out between Aboriginals and Europeans, which led to treaties.

Treaties

Aboriginals used treaties with one another to determine who would use the land and how it would be used. They honoured and respected these treaties.

Treaties between the Dominion of Canada and the British relocated Aboriginals to plots of land called reserves. As part of the agreement, the Aboriginals received money and annual payments afterwards. The government was to recognize traditional hunting and fishing rights.

The government believed the treaties to be a bill of sale of the land.

The Aboriginals believed the treaties to be agreements about the ways the land would be used.

Mi’kmaq Treaties

In the 1700s, the Mi’kmaq signed a series of treaties with the British.

In exchange for their loyalty to the crown, the Mi’kmaq would continue to have hunting and fishing rights in their territory.

1763, British government stated that no European settlement would be allowed west of the Appalachian Mountains because the lands were reserved for the Mi’kmaq.

Nova Scotia did not honour this and sold off much of the land.

The Mi’kmaq petitioned for more land, but colonial squatters took much of it.

In the 20th century, the Mi’kmaq had strict limitations placed on their hunting and fishing rights.

In 1999, the Supreme Court ruled that the Mi’kmaq had the right to catch enough fish to earn a moderate livelihood

Self-Government

The Indian Act of 1876 stated that decisions affecting Aboriginal peoples in Canada were made by the federal government.

In the 1980s, a major goal of Aboriginal communities was the right for them to be able to govern matters affecting their culture, languages, traditions, and institutions.

The Nisga’a Agreement The Nisga’a of BC never signed any treaties

with the British or the Canadian government. Within a 100 years, their land was taken

away for forestry and minerals. In 1973, the Supreme Court rules that they

had title to the land before colonization. A landmark agreement was reached in 1999.

The Nisga’a achieved self-government, $253 million in compensation, and rights to forest and mineral resources and hunting and fishing rights. They has to give up their claims to 80% of their traditional land.