A Master Guide to Berthing

8/13/2019 A Master Guide to Berthing

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A Masters Guide to Berthing

A Masters Guide to Berthing is the third publication in the Masters Guide Series. TheStandard P&I Clubs loss prevention programme ocuses on best practice to avert thoseclaims that are generall! described as avoidable" and #hich oten result rom cre# error or

e$uipment ailure. In its continuing commitment to saet! at sea and the prevention oaccidents" casualties and pollution" the Club issues a variet! o publications on saet!%relatedsubects" o #hich this is one. 'or more inormation about these publications please contacteither the Managers (ondon Agents or an! Charles Ta!lor oice listed in this guide.

Authors

)ric Murdoch BSc" MSc" C.)ng*irector o Saet! & (oss PreventionCharles Ta!lor & Co. (td"*irect Tel+ ,-- /0 1/ 2311 2--/eric.murdoch4ctcplc.com

Capt. Chris Clar5e 6B)" Master MarinerSenior (ecturer" Manned Model Shiphandling 'acilit!7arsash Maritime Centre

8e#ton 9oad7arsash" SouthamptonS6:; < 32?;?;chris.clar5e4solent.ac.u5

*r. Ian 7. *and Bsc" Ph*" '9)ng*irector o @!drod!namicsBMT SeaTech (td"Building ;--" @aslar Marine Technolog! Par5Gosport" Portsmouth" @antsP6;1 1AGTel+ ,-- /0 1:


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A ship handler needs to understand #hat is happening to his ship and" more importantl!" #hat#ill happen a short time into the uture. This 5no#ledge is essential in a port environment#hen a ship encounters close $uarters situations" narro# channels and the eects o cross%#inds and currents. The culmination o an! vo!age is the controlled mating o the ship #ith asolid" stationar! berth. Berthing re$uires precise and gentle control i the ormer is not to

demolish the latter. Such ine and precise control is demonstrated ever!da! b! ship handlersin ports all over the #orld. Most ships doc5 sael!" most o the time a testament to pilotss5ill and abilit!" but the outcome o a manoeuvre is not al#a!s successul. Ships can" anddo" run aground" demolish etties" hit the berth and collide #ith other ships at an alarmingre$uenc!" giving rise to loss o lie" environmental pollution and propert! damage.

The purpose o this guide is to provide some insight into #hat can go #rong and #h!" #h!ships are designed the #a! the! are" #h! the! handle the #a! the! do and ho# to berth them.In the inal chapter" there is advice on pilotage. 6n its o#n" the guide #ill not teach !ou ho#to become a ship handler" but it does provide bac5ground material to help a good ship handler

become a better one. Throughout the berthing eamples" it has been assumed that the ship has

a single right%handed propeller and that bul5 carriers and tan5ers have their accommodationat.

)ric MurdochApril 1//-

1. GOLDEN RULES OF BERTHING

There are certain actions that a master should al#a!s ta5e beore and during berthing. Theseare listed belo#.

Passage pla!g

Al#a!s passage plan rom berth to berth. Pa! careul attention to the dangers that areli5el! to be encountered during the pilotage.

Al#a!s ull! brie the pilot" ma5ing sure that he understands the ships speed andmanoeuvring characteristics.

Al#a!s as5 the pilot to discuss the passage and berthing plan. As5 $uestions i an!thing isunclear.

"or#!g $!th tugs

Consider the use o tug assistance" #here #ind and current or the ships handlingcharacteristics create diicult berthing conditions.

Al#a!s estimate #indage and use this estimate to determine the number o tugs re$uired. 7hen berthing #ith a bo# thruster" a large ship ma! need a tug to control the ships stern.

%aoeu&r!g

Avoid high or#ard speed #hen #or5ing #ith tugs" #hen using a bo# thruster" #henunder%5eel clearance is small" #hen sailing in a narro# channel or #hen close to otherships.

Test astern movement and #ait until the ship moves positivel! astern beore stopping. 9emember that a 5ic5 ahead can be used to initiate and maintain a turn #hen speed is lo#.

9emember that the ships pivot point is or#ard o amidships #hen steaming ahead.


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9emember that a ship #ill #ant to settle #ith the pivot point to the #ind#ard o" and inalignment #ith" the point o inluence o #ind.

9emember that the point o inluence o #ind changes #ith #ind direction and the shipsheading.

9emember that at lo# speed" current and #ind have a greater eect on manoeuvrabilit!

and that highsided ships #ill eperience a pronounced eect rom lee#a!.

F!all'

8ever ring Dinished #ith engines until ever! mooring line has been made ast. Al#a!s anticipate #ell ahead and epect the unepected to occur.

(. DOC) DA%AGE AND P*I CLAI%S

Since ;


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Stru+# a 2o+#

The master" pilot" #atch oicer and helmsman #ere on the bridge. The pilot gave the ordersand the helmsman applied them. The pilot ordered starboard helm" but the helmsman applied

port helm. B! the time this error #as discovered" the ship #as s#inging to#ards rather thana#a! rom the berth.

Cause - operator error

It #as not the practice to repeat helm orders. The helmsman thought the pilot had ordered porthelm" he did not repeat the order and the pilot did not observe the rudder movement. @elmorders should al#a!s be repeated. It is best practice or the ships master or #atch oicer torepeat the helm order rom a pilot to the $uartermaster and or the $uartermaster to repeat theorder bac5 beore the manoeuvre is made.

Sh!p spe2 3or$ar2 a2 stru+# the 2o+#

The ship had ust berthed and a tug #as still attached. The pilot #as on the bridge. 'or#ardspring and headlines #ere made ast" and stern lines #ere being attached. )ngines" though

still on bridge control" #ere stopped. It #as unli5el! that engines #ould be used again so the!#ere set to engine control. As this happened" the ship sped or#ard and" although her bo##as restrained b! the or#ard spring" she struc5 the doc5.

Cause - e4u!p,et 3a!lure

The engine #as in operation #ith the propeller pitch set to ero on the bridge telegraph" but to23F or#ard pitch on the engine telegraph. 6n transer to engine control" the pitch reset to23F ahead. The engine room pitch control had not been s!nchronised #ith the bridgetelegraph. Telegraph settings should have been chec5ed during handover.

Sh!p spe2 3or$ar2 a2 stru+# a ,oore2 sh!p

The pilot #as on the bridge" mooring lines had been reduced to one headline and one spring.The chie engineer started the ships medium speed engine and the ship sped or#ard" bro5ethe t#o remaining mooring lines" crossed the basin and collided #ith a moored ship.


This small chemical tan5er #as itted #ith a medium speed diesel engine and a controllablepitch propeller. There #as a ault #ith the propeller control e$uipment and the propeller pitchhad been set to Dull ahead. This #as the ail%sae position. The indicator on the oildistribution bo sho#ed Dull ahead pitch" but the engineer had not chec5ed this beorestarting the engine. @e assumed the pitch #as ero b! loo5ing at the dial in the engine controlroom. *eparture chec5s should re$uire sighting the propeller pitch indicator on the oildistribution bo.

Har2 la2!g $!th a 2o+#

The t#in%scre# ship #as approaching the doc5 #ith the master operating the engine controls.There #as no pilot on board because the master held a pilotage certiicate. The master #asnavigating b! visual reerence to 5no#n #a!points and navigation mar5s. The engine could

be controlled rom the #heelhouse and rom both bridge #ingsJ usuall! the master operatedthe engine rom a bridge #ing. As the ship approached the berth" the master becameconcerned that the ships speed #as not reducing as epected. @e adusted the engine controlsto give ull stern pitch on both engines #ith ull shat po#er. The ships speed reduced but it#as still too great or berthing. A hard landing could not be avoided.



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*uring the vo!age" a ault had developed #ith the control mechanism on the starboardpropeller and conse$uentl! the propeller pitch had roen at 23F ahead. The ships engineershad noticed this but had ailed to inorm the master. *uring doc5ing" the starboard pitchremained at 23F ahead regardless o the pitch set b! the master. The ault on the starboard

propeller remained unnoticed even though the propeller pitch indicator gave the correct

reading. Beore berthing" an astern movement should be tested and the response o theengineKpropeller pitch observed. The #atch oicer should routinel! observe engine settingsand pitch indicators.

Bla+#out 2ur!g p!lotage

The ship #as navigating in a narro# part o the Mississippi 9iver. She #as a modern tan5ere$uipped #ith ull automation" bridge control and a controllable pitch propeller. She #assailing at ull river speed and had the shat generator engaged. Suddenl!" the ship blac5ed out"veered to starboard and struc5 a moored ship.


There had been a split%second interruption to the po#er suppl! or the engine automation.7hen po#er #as resumed" the computer reset the engine 9PM and propeller pitch to theactor! set deault values o ero pitch and 23F po#er. These values diered rom those that#ere currentl! set on the bridge telegraph. 8obod! could understand #h! propulsion po#erhad ailed and the reduction in shat po#er caused the shat generator to cut out and the shipto blac5 out. An electrical ault had caused the split%second loss o po#er to the enginemanagement s!stem. @o#ever" the ships cre# did not realise that the e$uipment #ould resetto the deault settings or #hat those settings #ere. 7here etensive automation is used orengine management" it is essential or ever! engineering oicer to 5no# #hat" i an!" deaultsettings there are.

Poor +o,,u!+at!osThe ship had raised her anchor immediatel! beore the pilot boarded. She #as under #a!#hen the pilot entered on to the bridge. The master spo5e )nglish to the pilot" but the pilots)nglish #as ver! poor and the master could hardl! understand #hat he #as sa!ing.

8evertheless" the master allo#ed berthing to continue. *uring her irst approach to the berth"the ship hit and san5 a ishing boatJ she struc5 the berth on the second approach.

Cause - 3la$e2 pro+e2ures

The lac5 o common language bet#een the master and pilot prevented a proper berthingdiscussion. Tugs that the master believed had been re$uested did not arrive and the master didnot properl! understand the pilots orders. As a result" there #as utter conusion. The master

should have returned the ship to the anchorage" anchored and #aited until a pilot boarded #hospo5e a language common to both.

Tug release2 to$5l!e

T#o pilots" the master and #atch oicer #ere on the bridge as the (CC approached theberth. 'our tugs #ere assisting" one or#ard" one at and t#o standing b!. The plan #as tostop the ship about 1// metres rom the berth and to push her alongside. T#o tugs #ould

push" #hile the t#o attached tugs #ould gentl! pull to stead! the ships approach. This plan#as ollo#ed" but #hen the ship #as less than 3/ metres rom the berth" the or#ard tugreleased the to#line and the ships bo# s#ung to starboard and struc5 the berth.

Cause - 3la$e2 pro+e2ures

The tug should not have released the to#line during #hat #as a critical part o the berthingmanoeuvre. Since the line did not brea5" the conclusion must be that the pilot gave an


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instruction to release. The pilot #as not repeating in )nglish his orders to the tugsJ as a result"the master did not understand #hat #as happening and #ould not intervene.

Stru+# a 2olph!

The (PG carrier #as moving to#ards a ett! that comprised o mooring dolphins. 6ne o the

dolphins #as hit and damaged #hen the ships bo# veered to starboard #hile she #as movingastern under ull astern po#er.

Cause - 3a!lure to u2ersta2 sh!p6s +hara+ter!st!+s

The ship #as itted #ith a right%handed propeller" #hich produced a pronounced transversethrust #hen operating at a light draught and #hen moving astern. As a result" the ships stern#ould move to port. The master and pilot had not realised that transverse thrust #ould besuicientl! strong to cause the ships bo# to s#ing and did not allo# or it. It is important orship masters and #atch oicers to understand the manoeuvring characteristics o a ship. At asuitable opportunit!" manoeuvring should be practised. It is especiall! important to beamiliar #ith the eect o transverse thrust.

Stru+# a ,oore2 sh!p

The ship #as being to#ed stern irst against a lood tide to#ards the turning basin. T#o pilots#ere on the bridge along #ith the master" #atch oicer and helmsman. T#o tugs #ereassisting. The ship had not $uite reached the turning basin #hen the pilot started a ;>/H turn.*uring the turn" the tide pushed the ships stern to#ards the riverban5 and so engines #ere

put to ull ahead to prevent contact. @o#ever" the ship sped or#ard and struc5 a moored shipon the opposite ban5 #ith her bo#.

Cause - 3a!lure to u2ersta2 sh!p6s +hara+ter!st!+s

The turn had been begun beore the ship #as in the turning basin. Conse$uentl!" there #asless room to turn. Tide had been underestimated" and #hen the ships stern becamedangerousl! close to the riverban5" the pilot applied ecessive engine po#er. Although the

pilot card had been sighted" there had not been a detailed discussion o the manoeuvrebet#een the master and the pilot. The turning position had not been indicated on the chart andthe master #as una#are o the pilots intentions. A ull discussion o the intended manoeuvre

bet#een the master and the pilot is essential beore the pilot is given control.

Stru+# a 2olph!

In order to berth" it #as necessar! to s#ing the ship through ;>/H and approach at an angle oapproimatel! -3H. @o#ever" on this occasion" the ship came out o the turn to the #est o the

ett!. This #ould result in an approach angle o ;/H rather than -3H. There #as a our 5not

current that #ould push the ship to#ards the ett!. As the ship approached the ett!" the strongcurrent s#ung her bo# to port and to#ards the berth. Corrective action #as ta5en andadditional starboard rudder applied" but the bo# still s#ung to#ards the ett! and hit amooring dolphin.

Cause - 3a!lure to u2ersta2 erth!g re4u!re,ets

The angle o approach to the ett! #as too shallo#J contact is li5el! #hen tr!ing to berth at ashallo# angle. Ater completing the turn and inding the ship too ar to the #est o theapproach line" the master should have ta5en her bac5 to the turning basin and s#ung heraround again. The approach angle should have been agreed bet#een the master and the pilotat the start o the manoeuvre. As it turned out" the pilot attempted to Dmuddle through ratherthan to start again. The master allo#ed him to continue.


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Stru+# a ,oore2 sh!p

6n this ship" it #as usual or the master to put her alongside the berth ater ta5ing controlrom the pilot. The discussion bet#een the master and pilot had been minimal. 6n thisoccasion" #hen the master too5 control" he sa# that the space on the berth #as small and ustlarge enough or his ship. Also" he #ould be berthing against a diicult 5nuc5le. It #as night.

The ship had a bo# thruster. A tug #as in attendance. As the ship approached the berth bo#irst" she hit the ship moored ahead.

Cause - 3a!lure to u2ersta2 erth!g re4u!re,ets

Inade$uate discussion bet#een the master and pilot resulted in the master having insuicienttime to plan the berthing beore attempting the manoeuvre. It #ould have been better to berthstern irst" using the tug and then the bo# thruster to push the bo# alongside. This #ould have

become apparent during a discussion on berthing.

Stru+# a r!&er erth ! h!gh $!2

The ship had arrived at the loc5 entrance #here she #as met b! t#o tugs" both o #hich

#ould be needed to see her into the loc5. 7ind #as gusting orce ;/ and the ship #as ver!eposed. The cre# #ere unable to attach a line to either tug and the ship #as blo#n on to amooring dolphin.

Cause - 3a!lure to allo$ 3or $!2

7eather conditions #ere ver! poor and strong #inds #ere ma5ing navigation diicult.@o#ever" tugs had arrived onl! as the ship #as reaching the loc5" #hen in act the! shouldhave been as5ed to attend #hen the ship #as in the open channel.

7. SHIP FACTORS THAT AFFECT %ANOEU8RING

@andling characteristics #ill var! rom ship t!pe to ship t!pe and rom ship to ship. @andling$ualities are determined b! ship design" #hich in turn depends on the ships intendedunction. T!picall!" design ratios" such as a ships length to its beam" determine its#illingness to turn. @o#ever" desirable handling $ualities are achieved onl! #hen there is a

balance bet#een directional stabilit! and directional instabilit!.

U2er$ater hull geo,etr'

(ength to beam (KB0" beam to draught BKT0" bloc5 coeicient" prismatic coeicient ratioso the ships volume o displacement against the volume o a rectangular bloc5 or a prism0and location o longitudinal centre o buo!anc!" all give an indication o ho# a ship #ill

handle.

@igh values o (KB are associated #ith good course directional stabilit!. Container ships areli5el! to have a (KB ratio o approimatel! >" #hile harbour tugs" #hich need to be able toturn $uic5l! and #here course stabilit! is not re$uired" have a value o 1.3 to :.

@igh values o BKT increase lee#a! and the tendenc! or a ship in a beam #ind to Ds5ateacross the sea surace. A BKT ratio o over - is large. Most merchant ships have a BKT ratio inthe range o 1.23 to :.23. A 11%metre ast motor !acht #ill have a BKT ratio o about 3.23.

Ships #ith large bloc5 and prismatic coeicients have poor course stabilit! and a readiness to

turn. 7hen turning" the! #ill do so easil!. (arge tan5ers have these characteristics.


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Ships #ith a large protruding bulbous bo# are li5el! to have their longitudinal centre obuo!anc! ar or#ard. As a result" the ship #ill sho# a tendenc! to turn.

The p!&ot po!t

A ship rotates about a point situated along its length" called the Dpivot point. 7hen a orce is

applied to a ship" #hich has the result o causing the ship to turn e.g. the rudder0" the ship#ill turn around a vertical ais #hich is convenientl! reerred to as the pivot point. The

position o the pivot point depends on a number o inluences. 7ith head#a!" the pivot pointlies bet#een ;K- and ;K: o the ships length rom the bo#" and #ith stern#a!" it lies acorresponding distance rom the stern. In the case o a ship #ithout head#a! through the#ater but turning" its position #ill depend on the magnitude and position o the appliedorces0" #hether resulting rom the rudder" thrusters" tug" #ind or other inluence.

The pivot point traces the path that the ship ollo#s.

Lateral ,ot!o

Ships move laterall! #hen turning because the pivot point is not located at the ships centre.7hen moving or#ard and turning to starboard" the ships lateral movement is to port. 7henmoving astern and turning to starboard" lateral movement is to starboard. It is important tounderstand #here the pivot point lies and ho# lateral movement can cause side#a!s drit"5no#ledge #hich is essential #hen manoeuvring close to haards.

Propeller a2 ru22er

The rudder acts as a h!drooil. B! itsel" it is a passive instrument and relies on #ater passingover it to give it Dlit. 9udders are placed at the stern o a ship or this reason and to ta5eadvantage o the or#ard pivot point" #hich enhances the eect. 7ater lo# is provided b!

the ship passing through the #ater and b! the propeller orcing #ater over the rudder in theprocess o driving the ship. The optimum steerage orce is provided b! #ater lo# generatedb! a turning propeller.7ater lo# is vital in maintaining control o the ship. 7hile #ater lo#provided b! the ships motion alone can be eective" the eect #ill diminish as speed isreduced. 6bstacles that delect lo#" such as a stopped propeller in ront o the rudder"

particularl! #hen the propeller is large" can reduce rudder eectiveness. 9educed or disturbedlo# #ill result in a poor response to rudder movements. Conventional rudders are describedas DbalancedJ part o the rudder area is or#ard o the pintles to help the rudder turn and toease the load on the steering motor. This arrangement provides or better h!drod!namicloading. A lap Bec5er rudder0 can be itted to the rudders trailing edge. The lap #or5s toincrease the eective camber o the rudder and to increase lit. 9udders can be deined b!

#hat is 5no#n as the Drudder area ratio" #hich is a ratio o the surace area o the rudderdivided b! the ships length and draught. The rudder area ratio gives an indication o theli5el! eectiveness o a rudder. Merchant ship ratios range rom /./;? to /./:3. The largerthe ratio" the greater the eect the rudder #ill have.

Thrust &e+tor!g 2e&!+es

Thrust vectoring devices are itted as an alternative to a rudder. The! operate under theprinciple that a rudder is eective because it delects the propeller slipstream" #hich initiatesa turn and maintains a state o balance once the turn is established. Conse$uentl!"manoeuvrabilit! is enhanced #hen all the thrust rom a propeller is vectored. Aimuthingducted thrusters" c!cloidal thrusters and pump ets all operate b! directing thrust to initiate

and to maintain the turn. Podded propulsors are devices #here the prime mover is an electricmotor" encased in an under#ater streamlined pod" #hich connects directl! to a propeller. Pods


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are itted to the outside o a hull. The! can be aimuthing or ied. Propellers attached to themcan push or pull. A propulsion pod acts as both propeller and rudder.

Bo$ thrusters a2 the!r use

(ateral thrusters can be itted in the bo# or the stern. (ateral thrusters are most eective #hen

a ship has neither head#a! nor stern#a!. The! create a turning eect b! providing a sideorce at their location. Their eectiveness #ill depend upon the distance bet#een the thrusterand ships pivot point. 7hen berthing a ship that has a single bo# thruster" and no sternthruster" it is important not to become too ocused on the bo#" because this can be controlled#ith the thruster. Plan to get the stern alongside as a priorit!. 9emember that pure rotation canonl! be induced b! t#o lateral thrusters" one or#ard and one at" opposing each other" andthat a tug ma! be needed to control the stern o a large ship. Bo# thrusters are used #hen it isre$uired to Dbreast on to or o a berth or to move the ships head rom a ett!. Modern shipsitted #ith a bo# thruster #ill oten berth #ithout tug assistance. @o#ever" a bo# thruster#ill lose its eectiveness as a ships speed increases. *epending on the hull and thrust tunneldesign" thrust eectiveness can be lost at bet#een 1 and 3 5nots. The reason or this is the

merging o the slipstream rom the thruster #ith the general lo# around a or#ard movinghull. 7hen speed increases above t#o 5nots" local loss o pressure over the hull" do#nstreamrom the thruster" creates a turning moment opposite to the moment produced b! the thruster.The thruster ma! become ineective.

Thrust!g $he stoppe2 7hen stopped and thrusting" a ships pivot point is li5el! to beat. I a bo# thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship" the ship #ill turn to starboard.

Thrust!g $!th hea2$a' The pivot point #ill be or#ard" so thrusting #ill not be ver!eective" especiall! at high speeds.

Thrust!g $!th ster$a' The pivot point is at and #hen the bo# thruster is put to

starboard" the ships bo# #ill s#ing to starboard. The thruster #ill be eective" and #ill actas a orm o Drudder.

Ru22er respose

The time it ta5es or the rudder to respond to a helm order #ill determine ho# rapidl! a shipgets into a turn. The $uic5er the rudder responds" the sooner the ship #ill begin to turn.

S!gle ru22ers a2 t$! s+re$ sh!ps

Manoeuvring characteristics at lo# speeds #ill generall! be poor on t#in scre# ships itted#ith a single centre line rudder. This is because the single centre line rudder ma! have to bemoved to large angles beore an! part o it becomes immersed in the slipstream o one o the

propellers. 7hen not immersed" the lit produced b! the rudder at lo# speeds #ill be ver!small" resulting in large turning circles and poor response to helm.

Tras&erse thrust

Transverse thrust is the tendenc! or a or#ard or astern running propeller to move the sternto starboard or port. Transverse thrust is caused b! interaction bet#een the hull" propeller andrudder. The eect o transverse thrust is a slight tendenc! or the bo# to s#ing to port on aship #ith a right%handed propeller turning ahead. Transverse thrust is more pronounced #hen

propellers are moving astern. 7hen moving astern" transverse thrust is caused b! #aterpassing through the astern%moving propeller creating high pressure on the starboard $uarter othe hull" #hich produces a orce that pushes the ships stern to port. 9udder angle caninluence the magnitude o this orce. Masters should be a#are o the variable eect otransverse thrust. As #ater lo# over a ships hull changes" so does transverse thrust. The


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dierence is most noticeable in shallo# #ater. 'or eample" a ship that turns to starboard indeep #ater ma! #ell turn to port in shallo# #ater. Also" the magnitude o the orce #illchange and" b! implication" there #ill be a range o #ater depths or #hich the bias ma! bediicult to predict" something that is especiall! true #hen a ship is stopping in #ater oreducing depth.

Transverse thrust is oten used to help bring the ships stern alongside during berthing. 7hena propeller is put astern on a ship moving or#ard at speed" the initial eect o transversethrust is slight. @o#ever" as the ships or#ard motion decreases" the eect o transversethrust increases. It is essential or a master to understand ust ho# much eect transversethrust has on his particular ship.

Approa+h spee2

Man! berthing accidents occur because the speed o approach is too high. The master shouldadvise the pilot o the ships stopping distance and general manoeuvring characteristics"giving particular emphasis to speed" corresponding engine revolutions and to the critical

range. 7hen close to a doc5" speed should be the minimum necessar! to maintain control.

Cotrol $h!le slo$!g

It can be diicult to reduce speed and maintain control. This is because reduction in propellerspeed reduces #ater lo# over the rudder and the rudder becomes less eective. The normal

procedure or stopping is to put engines astern. @o#ever" #hen a propeller rotates astern"#ater lo# over the rudder is bro5en and the ship #ill be less responsive to helm. In addition"there is the disruptive eect o transverse thrust.

'or this reason" it is essential to plan a stop b! reducing speed in good time. Also" it should beappreciated that putting engines to ull astern during an emergenc! could result in a loss osteerage.

)!+# ahea2

The D5ic5 ahead is used #hen a ship is moving or#ard at ver! slo# speed due to minimal#ater lo# over the rudder and the ship is not responding to helm. It is also used to initiate aturn. )ngines are put ahead or a short burst #ith the obective o increasing #ater lo# overthe rudder" but #ithout increasing the ships speed. )ngine po#er is reduced beore the shipslongitudinal inertia is overcome and she begins to accelerate. 7hen using the D5ic5 ahead" itshould be borne in mind that prolonged and re$uent 5ic5s ahead #ill increase the shipsspeed. Appl! ull rudder to provide maimum steering orce. An!thing less than hard over

during turning #ill allo# a greater proportion o the po#er to drive the ship ahead. It isimportant to reduce engine po#er beore reducing helm.

9. BERTHING IN "IND

"!2 a2 !ts e33e+t

7ind has a signiicant eect on a ship. It causes heading changes and lee#a!. 'ailure tocompensate correctl! or #ind during berthing is a signiicant cause o berthing accidents.The diicult! in allo#ing or #ind arises rom the variable eect that #ind can have on aship because o changes in a ships heading and speed. 7ind has special signiicance in the

handling o high%sided vessels such as car carriers. The eect #ill var! #ith the relative #inddirection and the speed o the ship. Although #ind orce and direction can be estimated rom


11/28

inormation obtained rom a variet! o sources" such as #eather orecasts" TS inormation"the ships o#n #ind instrumentation and personal observation" local conditions can changerapidl! and #ith little #arning. Control o a ship can be easil! lost during the passage o as$uall. There is an obvious need to understand ho# #ind #ill aect !our ship" and ho# thiseect can be diicult to predict. 'or eample" it might appear logical that the eect o #ind

on a tan5er stopped in the #ater #ould cause the bo# to s#ing to#ards the #ind. @o#ever"eperience sho#s that a tan5er stopped in the #ater #ill usuall! lie #ith the #ind or#ard othe beam rather than ine on the bo#. It is especiall! diicult to predict the eect o #ind on a

partiall! loaded container ship.

The +etre o3 lateral res!sta+e

The orce o the #ind causes the ship to drit and" b! doing so" h!drod!namic orces act onthe under#ater hull to resist the eect o the #ind. The point o inluence o these under#aterorces is 5no#n as the centre o lateral resistance C(90 and is the point on the under#aterhull at #hich the #hole h!drod!namic orce can be considered to act. Similarl!" there is a

point o inluence o #ind 70 #hich has an important relationship #ith the C(9. 7 is li5el!

to alter re$uentl! as it #ill change in relation to the #ind direction and the ships heading. Toanticipate the eect #ind #ill have on a ships heading" 7 must be vie#ed in relation toC(9. Ship handlers preer to reer to pivot point P0 rather than C(9 #hen discussing theeects o #ind on a ship #ith head#a! or stern#a!. @o#ever" a stopped ship does not have a

pivot point and or this reason C(9 should al#a!s be used. In the discussion #hich ollo#s"C(9 is used or a stopped ship and P or a ship #ith motion.

The po!t o3 !3lue+e o3 $!2

The point o inluence o #ind 70 is that point on the ships above%#ater structure upon#hich the #hole orce o the #ind can be considered an act. Lnli5e a ships centre o gravit!"

the point o inluence o #ind moves depending on the proile o the ship presented to the#ind. 7hen a ships beam is acing to the #ind" 7 #ill be airl! close to the mid%lengthpoint" slightl! at in the case o ships #ith at accommodation and slightl! or#ard i theaccommodation is or#ard. A ship #ill al#a!s #ant to settle into a position #here the pivot

point and point o inluence o #ind in are in alignment.

Sh!p stoppe2 - sh!p $!th a++o,,o2at!o lo+# a3t

6n a stopped ship #ith the #ind on her beam" 7 #ill be close to the ships mid%length. 7henstopped in the #ater" the C(9 is also at its mid%length. The dierence in location bet#een thet#o points produces a small couple" and the ship #ill turn #ith its head to#ards the #ind. Asthe ship turns" 7 moves until it is close to the C(9" #hen the couple reduces to ero. The

ship #ill settle on this heading" usuall! #ith the #ind slightl! or#ard o the beam.


12/28

Sh!p $!th hea2$a' - sh!p $!th a++o,,o2at!o lo+# a3t

I a ship has head#a!" P is or#ard and the lever bet#een 7 and P is large. The resultantorce #ill cause the ships head to turn to the #ind.

Sh!p $!th ster$a' - sh!p $!th a++o,,o2at!o lo+# a3t

I a ship has stern#a!" P is at o 7 and the ships stern #ill see5 the #ind. @o#ever" and orthe maorit! o ships" the compleit! o the at%end accommodation structure can cause 7 tomove urther at as the ship turns. )ventuall!" the ship ma! settle #ith the #ind broad on the

$uarter rather than the stern.

For+e o3 the $!2

7ind orce can be estimated b! the ormula+

' 1K;>"///0 #indage area"

#here ' is the #ind orce in tonnes per s$uare metre" is the #ind speed in mKsmetresKsecond0 and #indage area is the area o ship eposed to the #ind in s$uare metres.)stimate #indage area or a beam #ind b! multipl!ing length b! reeboard and adding the

proile area o the accommodation housing. 'or a head #ind" multipl! beam b! reeboard andadd the area o the bridge ront. And" as an! mariner #ill 5no#" double the igure obtained or' and order one or more tugs #ith the nearest bollard pull. This calculation gives an estimateo the total orce o #ind on a ships side. It #ill give an indication o the total po#er that tugs#ill need in order to overcome this orce.

It should be remembered that a ship #ill al#a!s #ant to settle on a heading #here the shipspivot point is in alignment #ith the position o the #inds point o inluence. 7hen navigatingon such a course" a ship #ill sho# good course%5eeping properties. As a result" it is preerableto berth #ith head to #ind #ithhead#a! and to berth #ith stern to #ind #ith stern#a!. In addition" 5no#ledge o the locationo 7"compared #ith P" ma5es it possible to predict #hether the ships head or stern #ill Dgo to#ind as a ship isstopped. The ship #ill #ant to settle #ith P in alignment #ith and to #ind#ard o 7.@igh%sided ships ma! suer more rom lee#a! than rom heading change.


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Berth!g ! $!2

A ship is most vulnerable #hen presenting its broadside" the area o greatest #indage" to the#ind. In strong #inds" it ma! be diicult to counteract the eect #ithout tug assistance or theuse o a thruster. I close to a berth" it is essential that mooring lines are set as $uic5l! as

possible. Ideall!" plan the manoeuvring so as to present the minimum proile to the #ind" i.e.

head to #ind" or at least reduce to a minimum the time the #ind is at a broad angle to the ship.

Po!ts to re,e,er:

)nsure that conditions are sae and suitable or the envisaged manoeuvre. It #ill becheaper to dela! the ship until the #ind moderates than to deal #ith the atermath o anaccident.

7ind orce acting on a ship increases #ith the s$uare o the #ind speed. *oubling the#ind speed gives our times the orce. Gusts o #ind are dangerous.

I berthing in high #inds" ta5e evasiveKcorrective action earl!. Attach tugs earl! andbeore the! are needed.

Tugs should be o suicient strength not onl! to counteract the eects o #ind but to getthe ship to the re$uired destination.

The berthing plan should be devised to minimise the adverse eect o #ind and tomaimise its assistance.

A ship is more vulnerable to #ind at slo# speed. As speed reduces h!drod!namic orcesreduce" and the eect o #ind on heading and lee#a! increases.

Ta5e corrective action as soon as it becomes obvious that it is needed. The earlier thataction is ta5en" the less that needs to be done. The longer things are let" the more drastic#ill be the action needed to correct the situation.

ic5s ahead are eective in controlling a ship in #ind! conditions.

Consider an! special circumstances #here #ind ma! aect ship handling. Trim" reeboardand dec5 cargo can var! the position o 7 and the orce o the #ind on the ship" andchange the ships natural tendenc! in #ind. 'or eample" signiicant trim b! the stern cancause 7 to move ahead o P. In these circumstances the bo# #ill have increased #indage.Conse$uentl!" i the ship is heading into #ind" the bo# ma! sho# a tendenc! to blo#do#n#ind" even i the ship has head#a!.

)nclosed bridges can lead to a alse impression o #ind strength" as opposed to openbridge #ings #here the #ind strength #ill be obvious.

The #indage area" and hence the orce o the #ind on the ship" #ill var! #ith the headingrelative to the #ind. The maimum orce on the ship is #hen the ship is broadside to the#ind.

Good control is eas! to achieve #hen the ships head is to #ind and the ship has head#a!.Control is diicult #hen #ind is ollo#ing and strong turning orces are created.

@igh reeboard ships are more diicult to berth. 7hen berthing high reeboard ships suchas car carriers" it is essential to pa! etra attention in #ind! conditions.

Appl! large passing distances #hen it is #ind!. Al#a!s pass an! obstructions #ellup#ind. Gusts and s$ualls can arrive ver! rapidl! and #ith little #arning. 7hen #ind has

caused a ship to move rapidl! to lee#ard" it can be diicult to overcome the motion andreturn to a position o saet!.


14/28

Allo# plent! o distance rom the berth #hen #ind is onshore. I berthing in an onshore#ind" it is best practice to stop hal a ships length rom the berth and then come alongsidein a controlled manner. An uncontrolled landing on a do#n#ind berth can result indamage to both the ship and the berth.

;. EFFECT OF CURRENT

Curret a2 !ts e33e+t

A eature o an! river berth is the current. It is common or a river berth to lie in the samedirection as the prevailing current so that the current can assist #ith berthing. In this case" a

berth can be approached bo# into the current in order to give the advantage o relativel! highspeed through the #ater #ith a reduced speed over the ground. Conse$uentl!" steerage at lo#ground speed is improved b! the good #ater lo# over the rudder. The ship #ill be easier tostop. Another advantage o berthing into a current is that it can be used to push a shipalongside. Position the ship o the intended berth but at a slight angle to#ards it. Then allo#the current to produce a side#a!s movement o the ship to#ards the berth.

Masters should note that currents are usuall! comple" #ith var!ing rates and directions thatcan change hourl!. 'or sae navigation" local 5no#ledge is essential. A ship ma5ing head#a!into a current" but stopped over the ground" #ill have a or#ard pivot point.

Berth!g ! a +urret

Berthing #ith a ollo#ing current is diicult" since the ship must develop stern#a! throughthe #ater in order to be stopped over the ground. In these circumstances" control o a singlescre# ship #ill not be eas!. Lse a tug to hold the stern against the current. Care is needed

#hen berthing into a current" because too large an angle bet#een the berth and the direction othe current #ill cause the ship to move rapidl! side#a!s. Lnless corrected" contact #ith the

berth ma! be unavoidable.

I during berthing the bo#s angle to the berth is over%corrected then the ship could movea#a! rom the berth as the #edge o #ater bet#een ship and berth becomes established. Thisma! cause the ships stern to stri5e the berth.

6nce alongside" care must be ta5en to prevent the ship dropping astern beore bac5 springsand head lines are set.

Po!ts to re,e,er:


15/28

In man! places a counter current lo#s in opposition to the main current close to the ban5.6nl! local 5no#ledge #ill provide this inormation.

Current can var! #ith depth o #ater and large deep draught ships can eperiencedierent current eects at diering parts o the hull. Caution is needed.

7hen close to the berth in a head current" there is a danger that lo# inshore o the shipbecomes restricted and the ship is subect to interactive orces see page 110. These orcescan cause the ship to either be suc5ed to#ards or pushed a#a! rom the berth. (ocal5no#ledge #ill help anticipate this phenomenon.

As speed is reduced" ta5e care that the increased proportion o the ships vector #hich isattributable to current does not set the ship close to obstructions.

Al#a!s ma5e a generous allo#ance or current. Its eect on the ship increases as theships speed reduces. A mista5e made during berthing is oten impossible to correct.9emember that current predictions are ust predictions and meteorological conditions ma!result in a greater or lesser rate than orecast. (ocal TS inormation #ill normall! adviseo an! signiicant anomalies.


16/28

control during a stopping manoeuvre as the rudder loses the beneicial eects o the propellerslipstream" and the bias o%course ma! become more pronounced.

The increase in virtual mass is most noticeable #hen a ship is breasting on to a $ua! or ett!.irtual mass in s#a! motion is invariabl! large" increasing as under 5eel clearance reduces.

Conse$uentl!" an! impact #ith a $ua! #all" ett! or ender #ill be much more severe i under%5eel clearance is small. Similarl!" #hen a large ship moored in shallo# #ater is allo#ed tomove" the momentum can be considerable. 'ortunatel!" the situation is alleviated b! theconsiderabl! increased damping o an! movement that is a conse$uence o shallo# #ater andsmall under%5eel clearance. 7ater depth limits a ships speed. There is a maimum speed thata conventional displacement ship can achieve in shallo# #ater #hich can be less than thenormal service speed. This is called the Dlimiting speed. (imiting speed needs to beconsidered during passage planning. no#ledge o areas #here ships speed is limited b!#ater depth is important because an! increase in engine po#er to overcome the limiting speed#ill greatl! increase #ash. In simple terms" the limiting speed can be calculated rom theormula+

h-.3limG =

#here h is the #ater depth in metres and lim is speed in 5nots.

In shallo# #ater" and because o insuicient engine po#er" a conventional ship ma! beunable to overcome the limiting speed. @o#ever" some po#erul ships such as ast erries canovercome limiting speed but in doing so produce dangerous #ash.

S4uat

S$uat is the increase in draught and trim that occurs #hen a ship moves on the surace o thesea. At lo# speed" a ship sin5s bodil! and trims b! the head. At high speed" a ship bodil! litsand trims b! the stern. At especiall! high speed" the ship can plane. @o#ever" s$uat is greatestin shallo# #ater #here the resulting increase in draught and trim can cause grounding.

This" o course" provides a urther limit on speed in shallo# #ater" consideration o groundingdue to s$uat being especiall! important i the under%5eel clearance is ;/F or less o thedraught and the speed is 2/F or more o the limiting speed.

In shallo# #ater" s$uat can be estimated b! adding ;/F to the draught or /.: metres or ever!3 5nots o speed.

"ater$a' $!2thI the #ater#a! is restricted in #idth as #ell as depth" this can also have an eect on

perormance. I the under#ater midship area o the ship is signiicant compared to that o the#ater#a! over 1/F" sa!0 then this Dbloc5age #ill urther increase resistance" increase s$uatand create a Dbac5lo# o #ater bet#een the ship and the #ater#a!. This #ill cause silt to gointo suspension or deposit on the bed o the channel" and ma! erode the #ater#a!. It ma! alsocause ban5 material to be transerred to the bed o the #ater#a!.

A urther eect ma! also occur. I the ban5s are high relative to the #ater depth" the ship ma!steer a#a! rom the ban5. This Dban5 eect is due to bac5lo# bet#een the ban5 and the shipcreating a lo#pressure region amidships. This causes the ship to be Dsuc5ed to#ards the

ban5" and a pressure #ave bet#een the bo# and the ban5 the Dbo# cushion0 pushes the bo#a#a! rom the ban5 and the stern is dra#n in.


17/28

Ban5 eect increases #ith increases in speed" bloc5age i.e. #hen the cross%sectioned area othe ship is large relative to the cross%sectioned area o the ban50 and lo# under%5eel clearance.I speed is too high" ban5 eect can be severe and sudden" catching the ship handler una#are.It is advisable to slo# do#n and to steer to#ards the ban5. B! so doing" it ma! be possible to

stri5e a balance" #ith the ship running parallel to the ban5. Ban5 eect is also elt on bends ina #ater#a! #hen proimit! to the outer ban5 ma! Dhelp the bo# round a tight bend.

Itera+t!o $!th other sh!ps

Nust as ships can interact #ith ban5s" the! can also interact #ith other ships. The same basicph!sical actors are involved" shallo# #ater" speed and distance o. 7hen one ship comestoo close to another at high speed" then one or more things can happen. The ship ma! turnto#ards" or be dra#n to#ards the other ship" or both ships ma! sheer a#a! rom each other"or the ship ma! turn to#ards across0 the others bo#s.

These h!drod!namic eects are collectivel! 5no#n as Dinteraction. The! can and do lead to

collisions or contact. Interaction is accentuated b! shallo# #ater #hen a large h!drod!namiceect can render a ship almost impossible to control. To minimise their eect" it is essentialthat masters anticipate the situation" that speed is reduced beore the encounter" i practicable"and that the maimum passing distance is maintained. This is especiall! true #henoverta5ing.

Interaction is more o a problem #hen overta5ing than #hen crossing on a reciprocal course"because the orces have more time to Dta5e hold o the other ship. But it should beremembered that both ships are aected b! the interaction and both should ta5e care tominimise its eect. 9esearch has sho#n that mariners accept closer passing distances oroverta5ing ships than or crossing ships.

Approa+h +haels

Approach channels allo# a deep%draught ship to enter an other#ise shallo# port and ma!provide man! o the eternal actors that aect manoeuvring. The #idth" depth and alignmento man! approach channels are no# subect to rigorous anal!sis at the design stage so thatthe! provide the minimum haard to ships that move along them. The! are designed or singleor t#o%#a! traic and their #idth" depth and alignment are an optimised compromise

bet#een acceptable marine ris5 on the one hand and economic acceptabilit! #ith regard todredging costs0 on the other.

>. BERTHING "ITHOUT TUGS

7hen berthing #ithout tugs" it is essential that the eects o lateral motion are ull!understood. 7hen a ship moving or#ard turns b! use o engines and rudder alone" the eecto centriugal orce is to push the ship laterall! a#a! rom the direction o the turn. 7henturning b! use o bo# thrusters alone" the thruster simpl! pushes the bo# to port or starboard.There is no centriugal orce or lateral motion.

Port5s!2e erth!g

The ollo#ing se$uence assumes a ied pitch right%handed single scre# ship #ithout tug

assistance. Approach the berth at an angle" because astern thrust #ill be used to stop the shipand s#ing the bo# to starboard and the stern to port. This #ill parallel the ship to the berth.


18/28

6nce stopped" the ship can be manoeuvred into the inal position using astern po#er" #hichgives transverse thrust and 5ic5s ahead #ith appropriate rudder as re$uired. The actualse$uence #ill depend on the available berthing space.

8ormal port%side berthing #ith head#a! lateral motion to port

I stern#a! is developed and transverse thrust causes stern to s#ing to port" lateral motion#ill be to starboard and a#a! rom the berth. This ma! be useul i a ne# approach is

re$uired. I stern#a! develops lateral motion is to starboard

7hat can go #rong+

Approa+h spee2 too h!gh 5 Ship can hit the berth #ith her bo# beore stopping" or alarge astern movement used to stop the ship" and the resulting transverse thrust" can causethe stern to hit the berth.

)!+#s ahea2 go $rog 5 I a sharp 5ic5 ahead is made close to the berth then ecessiveor#ard motion can result and the ships bo# can stri5e the berth.

Lateral ,ot!o !gore2 5 7hen approaching port%side to the berth" the ships lateralmotion is to port. Insuicient a#areness o lateral motion can cause a ship to land heavil!against the berth.

Stopp!g too 3ar 3ro, the erth 5 The ship settles o the berth #ith her bo# movinga#a! rom the berth" a situation that is diicult to remed!. The action o appl!ing portrudder and a 5ic5 ahead and initiating a s#ing to port" in order to bring the bo# to#ardsthe berth" is li5el! to cause lateral motion o the ship" #hich #ill drive her a#a! rom the

berth. (ateral motion is al#a!s at right angles to the direction o motion and a#a! rom

the direction o turn. This apparentl! logical action ma! actuall! ma5e the situation #orse.

I berthing against a 5nuc5le" it is important to land lat against the straight part o the $ua!"not on the 5nuc5le.

Staroar25s!2e erth!g

The ollo#ing se$uence assumes a single scre# ship #ith a ied pitch right%handed propeller.The ideal approach should be to balance or#ard speed against the astern po#er needed tostop. The greater the or#ard speed" the greater the astern po#er re$uired to stop the ship and"conse$uentl!" the greater the eect o transverse thrust" #hich #ill bring the bo# close to the

berth and thro# the stern o.


19/28

Aim to approach the berth #ith the ship parallel. The eect o transverse thrust #ill s#ing thebo# to#ards the berth.

To stop the ship" it #ill be necessar! to put the engine astern. Transverse thrust #ill probabl!push the stern to port and bo# to starboard. To correct the eect o the transverse thrust"initiate a port s#ing o the bo# beore appl!ing astern po#er.

7hat can go #rong+

Approa+h spee2 too h!gh 5 The need to use a large astern movement could cause the bo#

to s#ing to#ards the berth and stri5e the berth. Sh!p stops +lose to the erth $!th her o$ to$ar2s the erth 5 'or#ard engine

movement could cause the bo# to stri5e the berth i too much po#er is used. Transversethrust generated b! an astern movement can cause the bo# to s#ing to#ards the berth andstri5e the berth.

Sh!p stops so,e 2!sta+e 3ro, the erth ut parallel to !t 5 A 5ic5 ahead #ith ullstarboard rudder could result in the bo# stri5ing the berth at almost


20/28

The sh!p6s propeller ,a' ot ha&e ?ero p!t+h% 9esidual pitch on a controllable pitchpropeller ship can cause head#a! or stern#a!. This is potentiall! problematic #henberthing in a conined space.

Use o3 o$ thrusters ,a' ot al$a's help % In some ships and depending on thrusttunnel design" the bo# thruster can impart head#a!.

@. BERTHING "ITH TUGS

Tugs are usuall! emplo!ed according to the practice o the port ater ta5ing into account thecapabilities o the available tug t!pes. To#age has a number o potential haards" and tugmasters #ill give priorit! to the saet! o their o#n tugs in dangerous situations. There areseveral points to remember" not onl! #ith regard to saet!" but also to ensure that tugs areused in the most eective manner. Berthing #ith tugs oers greater leibilit! to the shiphandler.

'actors to ta5e into account #hen determining the number o tugs to be emplo!ed+ practice in the port or the particular sie o ship and the designated berth under%5eel clearance anticipated strength and direction o #ind and its li5el! eect on berthing #indage area o the ship stopping po#er and handling characteristics o the ship.

In general" tugs have diicult! operating at high speed. Interactive orces bet#een the shipand the tug can become ver! large" particularl! at the ends o the ship. @igh speed increasesthe possibilit! o capsiing a conventional tug.

The eectiveness o a tug is proportional to the distance bet#een its point o contact and theships pivot point. 'or instance" #hen the ship has head#a! #ith t#o tugs attached" oneor#ard and one at" the at tug #ill have more eect than the or#ard one because thedistance rom the ater tug connection to the ships pivot point is greater. I both tugs areappl!ing the same po#er" the result #ill be a s#ing o the ship in avour o the at tug.

Po!ts to re,e,er:

7hen a tug attached b! a line leading or#ard applies a turning orce there #ill also be anincrease in the ships speed.

Anticipate an! changes in tug positioning on the ship and allo# suicient time or thetugs to reposition and be read! to assist.

Be a#are o an! space or other limitations that ma! give the tug master diicult! incarr!ing out the ships re$uirements.

Tugs are most eective #hen a ship is navigating at slo# speed. 'or berthing purposes"the! should not be attached to a ship navigating at a speed o ive 5nots or more.

It is important or masters to discuss #ith a pilot the position #here a tug #ill attachbeore the tugs arrive. A tug acting #ith a long lever rom the ships pivot point #ill bemore eective than a tug #ith a short lever. The eectiveness o a tug #ill depend uponthe position #here it is attached.


21/28

Propeller #ash rom tugs operating close to a ship" and pulling" could initiall! cause aships bo# or stern to move a#a! rom the direction in #hich the tug is pulling.

Conventional tugs connected b! a line can eert an un#anted orce on a small ship" #hichma! re$uire corrective action.

Masters should understand the dierent perormance characteristics o tugs and thatconventional tugs are li5el! to be less manoeuvrable than #ater tractor tugs. Shipsmasters can decide on the number o tugs emplo!ed but have no inluence on the tug t!pe.

Port5s!2e erth!g

A bo# thruster can be used to position the bo# #ith a degree o precision" ho#ever bo#thrust #ill not help to control the stern. Transverse thrust can be used to bring the stern osmall ships alongside. @o#ever" on a larger ship that is not itted #ith a stern thruster" a tugcan be secured at to control the stern #hile bo# thrust is used to control the bo#.

The simplest procedure is to stop the ship o the berth and then #or5 her alongside" using

bo# thrust and a tug to provide lateral po#er.

Staroar25s!2e erth!g

A bo# thruster enables the bo# to be positioned #ith a degree o precision. @o#ever #ithouttug assistance" the diicult! o getting the stern alongside remains. Conse$uentl!" positioningthe stern remains a priorit!. The use o bo# thrust alone to bring the bo# alongside" beorethe stern" is li5el! to cause the stern to move a#a! rom the berth. This situation is diicult toremed!. *epending on the circumstances" the ship can be stopped ahead o the re$uired

position and then moved astern to#ards the berth using bo# thrust. 6nce the ship is inposition" berthing can be completed using bo# thrust until the bo# is alongside. 7hen a tug issecured at" control o the stern is greatl! improved.

/. BERTHING "ITH ANCHORS

Anchors are an eective berthing aid. Anchors can be used or berthing #ithout tug assistanceon ships #ithout bo# thrusters and" in an emergenc!" to stop an! ship.

Dre2g!g a+hors

A dredging anchor #ill hold the bo# stead! #hile allo#ing a ship to move or#ard or at. Abo# anchor can be dredged rom a ship going or#ard or astern. The advantages o dredgingan anchor #hen moving or#ard are principall! that the ships pivot point moves to the

position o the ha#se pipe and" to overcome the anchors drag" propulsive po#er is usedgiving good steering at lo# speed. 7hen going or#ard" corrective action #ill be needed to

prevent the bo# rom s#inging to port or starboard. The intention is or the anchor to dragand not to dig in. I the anchor does dig in" it could cause the ship to stop and necessitate

brea5ing the anchor out again. *igging in can also damage the ship" anchor or #indlass. It isthereore important to use as little cable as possible" t!picall! a length o cable that is bet#eenone and a hal and t#o times the depth o the #ater.

(ocal 5no#ledge regarding the nature and condition o the seabed is important to avoiddredging in an area #here the bottom is oul.


22/28

E,erge+' a+hor!g

In an emergenc!" anchors can be ver! eective in stopping a ship" provided the anchor islo#ered to the seabed and the cable progressivel! paid out. Initiall!" the anchor should beallo#ed to dredge and graduall! build up its holding po#er until its bra5ing eect begins toreduce the ships speed. Care should be ta5en #hen tr!ing to stop an! ship in this #a!"

especiall! a large ship" as the anchor and its e$uipment ma! Dcarr! a#a! causing damage orinur!" i the anchor should snag.

10. TUGS AND PILOTS - LEGAL ISSUES

It is evident rom the other chapters o this Guide dealing #ith the technical aspects o shipberthing that the eective use o pilotage and to#age services is crucial in avoiding accidents.It is thereore important to relect briel! on the legal responsibilities o pilots" those engagedin to#age services" and the ships that the! assist.

P!lotageThe relationship bet#een the master and the pilot is raught #ith potential diiculties andconlict. The pilot directs the navigation o the ship" but the master still retains overallcommand and control. The reedom that the master gives to the pilot varies rom master tomaster but also depends upon the circumstances in #hich the pilotage ta5es place. The mastero a large oreign%going ship entering a diicult channel #ill tend to adopt a more passiveattitude to the pilot than a coastal master #ho 5no#s the area intimatel!.

The #a! in #hich the la# interprets this relationship" and the rights and responsibilities oeach to the other and to third parties" obviousl! diers rom countr! to countr! and theollo#ing is thereore oered as a general overvie#. In man! legal s!stems" the customar!rules and statutor! enactments provide a conused and sometimes contradictor! picture" #hichtends to the conclusion that a master" #hen considering ho# to operate #ith a pilot" should beguided more b! common sense and sel%preservation than b! precise legal principles.

The pilot o#es a proessional dut! o care to those #hom he serves" #hich assumes a5no#ledge and a#areness o local conditions. The pilot is thereore generall! liable to theshipo#ner" and to third parties" or a ailure to eercise such care. In practice" ho#ever" such aresponsibilit! is largel! illusor! since the pilot" as an individual" has e# assets #ith #hich tosatis! an! a#ard o damages. Also the etent o his liabilit! is oten restricted at la# orlimited in amount" although he ma! also be subect to criminal sanctions under an! relevant

legislation as a result o his actions. 7here there is inur! or damage to the propert! o a thirdpart! caused b! the pilots negligence" the third part! #ill naturall! loo5 to the shipo#ner orcompensation. There ma! be a possibilit! o a recourse action against the harbour authorit!"

port commission or canal compan! that emplo!s the negligent pilot.

I" ho#ever" the relevant bod! merel! acts as a licensing authorit!" it #ill not be liable orpilot error. Pilot associations are also generall! immune rom liabilit! or the actions o theirmembers. Given the lac5 o accountabilit! o the pilot" it is tempting to ignore an! detailedlegal anal!sis o the relationship bet#een the master and the pilot. This #ould be a mista5esince the principles #hich have been articulated in various legal urisdictions provide a #ellconsidered vie# on the #a! in #hich the relationship should operate most eectivel!. In

terms o engagement" the master is onl! legall! bound to emplo! a pilot in an area ocompulsor! pilotage. @o#ever" the master ma! be ound liable or not emplo!ing a pilot


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#here it can be sho#n that such ailure caused or contributed to an accident. 7hilst the pilotma! assume control o the navigation o the ship" this does not relieve the master o hiscommand o the ship. The master thereore retains both the right and the responsibilit! tointervene in the actions o the pilot" although it has been stressed on man! occasions that themaster is onl! ustiied in intervening" #hen the pilot is in charge" in ver! rare instancesJ or

eample" #here he perceives the threat o an imminent danger to the ship or #hen the pilot isobviousl! incapacitated in some #a!.

There is thereore a divided authorit!" #ith both the master and the pilot continuing to haveactive roles that ma! potentiall! conlict. The pilot is responsible or" and should be let incharge o" navigation in terms o speed" course" stopping and reversing" but the ships masteris responsible or all other matters such as maintaining a proper loo5out. And the pilot isentitled to epect a #ell%regulated and sea#orth! ship" that provides him #ith properassistance and inormation.

To$age

To#age has been deined as Da service rendered b! one vessel to aid the propulsion or toepedite the movement o another vessel. To#age can ta5e place in man! dierentcircumstances and can be part o a salvage or #rec5 removal operation ollo#ing a casualt!.It can also occur #hen a ship is in distress in order to avoid a casualt! occurring. In the vastmaorit! o cases" ho#ever" to#age is a routine operation" particularl! #ithin the conines o a

port. This is reerred to as customar! to#age. An agent o the ship" or the charterer" usuall!re$uests the services o a tug or port to#age. 6nce engaged" ho#ever" the tug ma! ta5e itsorders rom an! pilot on board the to#ed ship and thereore the presence o tugs adds to thecompleities o the relationship bet#een the master and pilot reerred to above. The pilotshould be ull! a#are o each tugs po#er and handling characteristics but the responsibilit!or engaging tug assistance" #here re$uired" rests #ith the ships master" and the ships master

ma! be ound negligent in not engaging a tug to assist #here the circumstances #arrant it andan accident occurs. )ver! shipo#ner should leave the $uestion o tug assistance to thediscretion o the master #ho must ma5e a udgment based on the prevailing circumstances.

The rights and responsibilities o the tug and the to#ed ship" #ith regards to each other and inrelation to third parties" are generall! dealt #ith in the applicable to#age contract. In mostcases" the contract #ill be based on industr! standard terms that la! do#n clearl! the divisiono responsibilit! bet#een the t#o entities. Speciic port user agreements eist" but standardorm contracts" such as the L Standard To#age Conditions" the 8etherlands To#ageConditions or the Scandinavian Conditions" are used in most cases. These all avour the tug"although in the LSA" the Supreme Court has held that an! clauses in a to#age contract

purporting to relieve the tugo#ner o liabilit! or negligence are invalid as being againstpublic polic!. In Napan" the tugo#ner must eercise due diligence to ma5e the tug sea#orth!at the time she leaves the port and is liable or an! damage to the to# caused b! an! ailure todo so.

Generall!" in the absence o clear #ording to the contrar!" a court #ill appl! as an impliedterm o the to#age contract that the tug o#ner #arrants to eercise due diligence to ma5e thetug sea#orth! at the commencement o the to#age.

11. %ASTERPILOT RELATIONSHIP

It is a given act that invariabl! pilotage is compulsor! and the maorit! o accidents during


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berthing occur #ith a pilot on the bridge. 8o berthing guide #ould be complete #ithoutreerence to the masterKpilot relationship. 7ith 5ind permission o the International Chambero Shipping" Intertan5o and 6CIM' #e have reprinted the ollo#ing tet rom their guideDInternational Best Practices or Maritime Pilotage.

Iterat!oal Best Pra+t!+es 3or %ar!t!,e P!lotageThese recommendations are or the guidance o masters" their supporting personnel and pilotsin la!ing do#n the minimum standards to be epected o the pilotage service given on boardships in pilotage #aters #orld#ide and aims to clari! the roles o the master and the pilot andthe #or5ing relationship bet#een them.

Such guidance is designed to supplement eisting regulations and standard reerences onpilotage #hich include" but are not limited to" those listed in Section ;/.

;./ Principles or the sae conduct o pilotage

;.; )icient pilotage is chiel! dependent upon the eectiveness o the communications andinormation echanges bet#een the pilot" the master and other bridge personnel and upon themutual understanding each has or the unctions and duties o the others. Ships personnel"shore based ship management and the relevant port and pilotage authorities should utilise the

proven concept o QBridge Team ManagementR. )stablishment o eective co%ordinationbet#een the pilot" master and other ships personnel" ta5ing due account o the ships s!stemsand the e$uipment available to the pilot is a prere$uisite or the sae conduct o the shipthrough pilotage #aters.

;.1 The presence o a pilot on the ship does not relieve the master or oicer in charge o thenavigational #atch rom their duties and obligations or the sae conduct o the ship.

1./ Provision o inormation or berth to berth passage planning

1.; Ships should provide the relevant port or pilotage authorit! #ith basic inormationregarding their arrival intentions and ship characteristics" such as draught and dimensions" asre$uired b! the port or other statutor! obligations. This should be completed #ell in advanceo the planned arrival and in accordance #ith local re$uirements.

1.1 In ac5no#ledging receipt o this inormation" the appropriate port or pilotage authorit!should pass relevant inormation bac5 to the ship either directl! or via agents0 as soon as it

becomes available. Such inormation should include as a minimum+ the pilot boarding pointJreporting and communications proceduresJ and suicient details o the prospective berth"anchorage and routeing inormation to enable the master to prepare a provisional passage planto the berth prior to his arrival. @o#ever" masters should recognise that not all o thisinormation ma! be available in suicient detail to complete the passage plan until the pilothas boarded the ship.

:./ Master pilot inormation echange

:.; The pilot and the master should echange inormation regarding the pilots intentions" theships characteristics and operational parameters as soon as possible ater the pilot has

boarded the ship.
http://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Nautic%2001/Navigation/International%20best%20practices%20for%20pilotage.dochttp://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_3/Nautic%2001/Navigation/International%20best%20practices%20for%20pilotage.doc


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The ICS MasterKPilot )change 'orms Annees A; and A1 o the ICS Bridge ProceduresGuide0 or the compan! e$uivalent ormat" should be completed b! both the master and pilotto help ensure read! availabilit! o the inormation and that nothing is omitted in error.

:.1 The echange o inormation regarding pilotage and the passage plan should include

clariication o+ roles and responsibilities o the master" pilot and other members o the bridge

management teamJ navigational intentionsJ local conditions including navigational or traic constraintsJ tidal and current inormationJ berthing plan and mooring boat useJ proposed use o tugsJ epected #eather conditions.

Ater ta5ing this inormation into account and comparing the pilots suggested plan #ith that

initiall! developed on board" the pilot and master should agree an overall inal plan earl! inthe passage beore the ship is committed. The master should not commit his ship to the

passage until satisied #ith the plan. All parties should be a#are that elements o the plan ma!change.

:.: Contingenc! plans should also be made #hich should be ollo#ed in the event o amalunction or a shipboard emergenc!" identi!ing possible abort points and sae groundingareas. These should be discussed and agreed bet#een pilot and master.

-./ *uties and 9esponsibilities

-.; The pilot" master and bridge personnel share a responsibilit! or good communicationsand mutual understanding o the others role or the sae conduct o the vessel in pilotage#aters. The! should also clari! their respective roles and responsibilities so that the pilot can

be easil! and successull! integrated into the normal bridge management team.

-.1 The pilots primar! dut! is to provide accurate inormation to ensure the sae navigationo the ship. In practice" the pilot #ill oten con the ship on the masters behal.

-.: The master retains the ultimate responsibilit! or the saet! o his ship. @e and his bridgepersonnel have a dut! to support the pilot and to monitor his actions. This should include

$uer!ing an! actions or omissions b! the pilot or an! other member o the bridgemanagement team0 i inconsistent #ith the passage plan or i the saet! o the ship is in an!doubt.

3./ Preparation or pilotage

3.;The pilot should+ ensure he is ade$uatel! rested prior to an act o pilotage" in good ph!sical and mental

itness and not under the inluence o drugs or alcoholJ prepare inormation or incorporation into the ships passage plan b! 5eeping up to date

#ith navigational" h!drographic and meteorological inormation as #ell as traic

movements #ithin the pilotage areaJ establish communication #ith the ship to ma5e arrangements or boarding.


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3.1 In supporting the pilot" the master and bridge personnel should+ ensure the! are ade$uatel! rested prior to an act o pilotage" in good ph!sical and mental

itness and not under the inluence o drugs or alcoholJ dra# upon the preliminar! inormation supplied b! the relevant port or pilotage authorit!

along #ith published data e.g. charts" tide tables" light lists" sailing directions and radiolists0 in order to develop a provisional passage plan prior to the ships arrivalJ

prepare suitable e$uipment and provide suicient personnel or embar5ing the pilot in asae and epedient mannerJ

establish communications #ith the pilot station to conirm boarding details.

?./ Pilot boarding

?.; The boarding position or pilots should be located" #here practicable" at a great enoughdistance rom the port so as to allo# suicient time or a comprehensive ace%to%aceechange o inormation and agreement o the inal pilotage passage plan. The position

chosen should allo# suicient sea%room to ensure that the ships saet! is not put in danger"beore" during or directl! ater such discussionsJ neither should it impede the passage o otherships.

?.1 The pilot should+ ta5e all necessar! personal saet! precautions" including using or #earing the appropriate

personal protective e$uipment and ensuring items are properl! maintainedJ Chec5 that boarding e$uipment appears properl! rigged and mannedJ (iaise #ith the master so that the ship is positioned and manoeuvred to permit sae

boarding.

?.: In supporting the pilot" the master and ships personnel should+ ensure that the means o pilot embar5ation and disembar5ation are properl! positioned"

rigged" maintained and manned in accordance #ith IM6 recommendations and" #hereapplicable" other port re$uirementsJ

the master should liaise #ith the pilot stationKtranser crat so that the ship is positionedand manoeuvred to ensure sae boarding.

2./ Conduct o passage in pilotage #aters

2.; It is essential that a ace%to%ace masterKpilot echange MP0 described in section :.;

results in clear and eective communication and the #illingness o the pilot" master andbridge personnel to #or5 together as part o a bridge management team. )nglish languageJ ora mutuall! agreed common languageJ or the IM6 Standard Marine Communication Phrasesshould be used" and all members o the team share a responsibilit! to highlight an! perceivederrors or omissions b! other team members" or clariication.

2.1 The master and bridge personnel should+ #ithin the bridge management team" interact #ith the pilot providing conirmation o his

directions and eed bac5 #hen the! have been complied #ithJ monitor at all times the ships speed and position as #ell as d!namic actors aecting the

ship e.g. #eather conditions" manoeuvring responses and densit! o traic0J

conirm on the chart at appropriate intervals the ships position and the positions onavigational aids" alerting the pilot to an! perceived inconsistencies.


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2.: The pilot should+ ensure that the master is able to participate in an! discussions #hen one pilot relin$uishes

his dut! to another pilotJ report to the relevant authorit! an! irregularit! #ithin the passage" including deiciencies

concerning the operation" manning" or e$uipment o the ship.

>./ Berthing and unberthing

>.; The necessit! o co%operation and a close #or5ing relationship bet#een the master andpilot during berthing and unberthing operations is etremel! important to the saet! o theship. In particular" both the pilot and the master should discuss and agree #hich one o them#ill be responsible or operating 5e! e$uipment and controls such as main engine" helm andthrusters0.

>.1 The pilot should+

co%ordinate the eorts o all parties engaged in the berthing or unberthing operation e.g.tug cre#s" linesmen" ships cre#0. @is intentions and actions should be eplainedimmediatel! to the bridge management team" in the previousl! agreed appropriatelanguage.

>.: In supporting the pilot" the master and bridge personnel should+ ensure that the pilots directions are conve!ed to the ships cre# and are correctl!

implementedJ ensure that the ships cre# provide the bridge management team #ith relevant eedbac5

inormationJ advise the pilot once his directions have been complied #ith" #here an omission has

occurred or i a potential problem eists

3II0 and its anneesJ

should report to the appropriate authorit! an!thing observed #hich ma! aect saet! onavigation or pollution prevention" including an! incident that ma! have occurred to thepiloted shipJ

reuse pilotage #hen the ship to be piloted is believed to pose a danger to the saet! onavigation or to the environment. An! such reusal" together #ith the reason" shouldimmediatel! be reported to the appropriate authorit! or urther action.


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IM6 9esolution A.->3II0" Annees I and II and subse$uent amendmentsQ9ecommendations on Training" ualiications and 6perational Procedures or MaritimePilots other than *eep Sea PilotsR

IM6 9esolution A.>>

Documents

A Master Guide to Berthing