A ‘Disruptive’ Look at Competency-Based Education

7/31/2019 A Disruptive Look at Competency-Based Education

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1 Center or American Progress | A Disruptive Look at Competency-Based Education

A Disruptive Look at

Competency-Based EducationHow the Innovative Use of Technology

Will Transform the College Experience

Louis Soares June 2012

Introduction

Mozillas Open Badges Iniiaive and MIxhe Massachusets Insiue o echnologys

cuting-edge iniiaive oering ree, high-qualiy college courses onlinehave pu a public

spoligh on alernaive ways o deliver possecondary educaion ha no only documen

wheher a suden has achieved a level o compeence bu also validae he learning has

occurred. Tese wo innovaive educaion models dier rom radiional educaion by

ocusing sricly on he demonsraion o compeency regardless o how long i ook a

suden o gain ha compeency. MIx, or is par, is inroducing hese new mehods ino

he well-heeled communiy o world-class universiies, while he Open Badges Iniiaive is

a he ronier o documening and validaing learning ha happens anywhere and a any

ime. Boh iniiaives poin he way o a uure where educaion can be high-qualiy andpersonalized ye so aordable ha is accessible o millions o addiional learners.

Te quesion, o course, is wheher hese innovaive learning iniiaives and ohers like

hem can ruly disrup he curren model o possecondary educaiona model ha

relies on ime-based measures o srucure and und learning experiences.

Te answer o ha quesion lies in wheher or no compeency-based educaion can be

eecively aken o scale. I he answer is yes, hen he challenge becomes ideniy-

ing wha ype o innovaions in policy and pracice are necessary o accomplish ha

oucome. One approach o he quesionwhich is he ocus o his brieis hrough

he lens o disrupive innovaion, a business heor y ha considers how echnology can

change an organizaion, secor, or indusry.

Te rs secion o his brie provides a shor primer on compeency-based educaion

in possecondary educaion. Nex we inroduce he our elemens o disrupive innova-

ion heory and use hese elemens as a guide o sudy educaion iniiaives ha could


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promoe disrupive innovaion. Lasly, we ouline a number o recommendaions or

policymakers on how o aciliae disrupive innovaion o ransorm higher educaion.

Competency-based education primer

Compeency-based educaion is an oucomes-based approach o educaion where heemphasis is on wha comes ou o possecondary educaionwha graduaes know and

can doraher han wha goes ino he curriculum. Wih a compeency-based approach,

you do no begin preparing a course syllabus by ideniying conen and readings.

Insead, you begin by ideniying compeencies and hen selec he conen, readings,

and assignmens o suppor suden atainmen o hose compeencies.

Wih a compeency-based approach, sudens advance when hey have demonsraed

masery o a compeency, which is dened as a combinaion o skills, abiliies and

knowledge needed o perorm a ask in a specic conex.1 Masery is he sole deer-

minan o progress, which means ha deliveryopions muliply and expand since any insrucional

mehod or insrucional provider ha can move a

suden oward masery is heoreically accepable.

In compeency-based educaion, assessmen is

embedded in every sep o he learning process in

order o provide sudens wih guidance and suppor

oward masery. Tis heighened level o assessmen

is designed o build compeencies in real ime. Te

ollowing gure, rom he Naional PossecondaryEducaion Cooperaives repor Dening and

Assessing Learning, provides a simple ye powerul

visual o he compeency-based approach:

As described in he repor, he rs rung a he

botom o he pyramid consiss otraits and char-

acteristicshese are he oundaion o learning

and depic he innae makeup o individuals upon

which urher experiences can be buil. Te second

rung consiss oskills, abilities, and knowledge developed hrough learning experiences

broadly dened o include ormal educaion, work, and paricipaion in communiy

aairs. Te hird rung, competencies, are he oucome o inegraed learning experi-

ences, in which skills, abiliies, and knowledge are ocused on he perormance o a

ask. Finally, he op rung, demonstrations, resuls rom he applicaion o compeencies.

Assessmen is deeply embedded a all sages o his learning process.

Demonstrations

Competencies

Skills, abilities, and knowledge

Traits and characteristics

Assessment

of performance

Acquired skills,

abilities, andknowledge

Developed in the

learning process

Foundation

Learning experiences

Integrated learning experiences

ASSESSM

ENT

FIGURE 1

A conceptual learning model

Source: U.S. Department of Education, 2001.


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I is clear, given his descripion, ha he design o he learning experience is depen-

den upon sandardized and agreed-upon deniions or skills, abiliies, and knowl-

edge; compeencies; and demonsraions. Once sudens, aculy, employers, and

policymakers agree upon compeencies ha mus be masered, i opens up avenues

or sudens o personalize heir learning opions by selecing among dieren

providers. Te abiliy o personalize learning opions enables sudens o nd he

bes insrucion a he lowes cos. Whas more, as long as sudens can demonsraemasery o a subjec i no longer maters where hey wen o school. As i happens,

sandardized deniions o compeencies are inegral o wheher or no compeency-

based educaion can be scaled up and disrup possecondar y educaion.

A very short history of competency-based education

In recen possecondary educaion hisory he emergence o compeency-based educa-

ion as a opic o ineres paralleled he inormaion-echnology revoluion, which has

allowed or dieren ways o delivering educaion and capuring daa abou he learningexperience. As reerenced earlier, he U.S. Educaion Deparmen in 2002 sponsored a

sudy by he Naional Possecondary Educaion Cooperaive ha examined his very

opic by analyzing he pracices o eigh organizaions,2 assering ha:

[A]ccess to learning opportunities is greater now than at any previous time. Te learning

paths created by advances in inormation technology no longer lead solely to postsecond-

ary institutions. Organizations outside o postsecondary education have made signifcant

inroads by providing perormance-based learning opportunities built on competencies.

One o he insiuions sudied by he Naional Possecondary Educaion Cooperaivewas Wesern Governors Universiy, or WGU, a ully online college experience in which

echnology does he eaching and sudens advance based on heir masery o conen

as opposed o he amoun o ime spen in a course. I was one o he earlies models o

compeency-based educaion ha has begun o be aken o scale.

Newer examples o compeency-based educaion include he Carnegie Mellon Open

Learning Iniiaive3 and upsar rms such as Sophia Learning,4 which is building a social

learning, compeency-based educaion plaorm. In addiion, here are many oher innova-

ors across he counry applying elemens o a compeency-based educaion.

I is possible ha compeency-based educaion could serve as a game changer in

possecondary educaion, delivering high-qualiy educaion experiences ha lead o

demonsraed learning and masery a an aordable price. Over he pas decade weve

learned much abou esablished organizaions such as WGU bu here remains a grea

deal o learn abou he mix o echnology, curriculum, and processes ha could urn

compeency-based educaion ino a rue game changer in possecondary educaion.


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Les now urn o he heory o disrupive innovaion as i relaes o compeency-

based educaion.

Disruptive innovation as an analytical tool

In is mos undamenal orm, disrupive innovaion heory, an analyical ool pioneeredby Harvard Universiy business proessor Clayon Chrisensen, is a way o hinking

abou how echnology can change an organizaion, secor, or indusry.

Disrupive innovaion heory makes a disincion beween susaining innovaion and

disrupive innovaion. Susaining innovaion is when echnology is applied in a way

ha makes i easier o deploy people and processes o beter serve exising cusomers.

In conras, disrupive innovaion is when echnology is applied in way ha creaes a

simpler, more aordable produc or a new group o cusomers who, in mos cases, were

no buying (or succeeding in) he radiional oering.

For disrupive innovaion o be possible, i mus include our inerrelaed elemens:

Technology enabler: Tere mus be a echnology ha ransorms a business process

ha once required deep raining, experise, ieraion, and inuiion ino a rules-based

process ha can be perormed by compuer soware. Oen he echnology enabler

makes i possible o unbundle a produc or service ha was once considered o be

viable bu was only delivered in a verically inegraed manner.

Business model change: Te new process or soluion mus be able o ino a busi-

ness ha can be proable while delivering cusomers a more aordable and conve-nien produc or service.

New value network: Te soluion and business mus be able o connec wih oher

businesses ha oer complemenary services and whose revenue models are also

complemenary.

Standards: Since he echnology enabler, business model, and value nework creae

enirely new ways o doing business and organizing resources, disrupive innovaion

requires a rehinking o indusry sandards or qualiy, saey, and ineroperabiliy ha

dene how he indusry operaes and ypically suppor radiional producs, services,

and nancing.5

Wheher or no a new oering can be disrupive depends on a mix o hese elemens

being presen. Ta being he case, les examine i hese elemens are indeed presen or

compeency-based educaion.


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Can competency-based education be a disruptive innovation?

Technology

Les begin wih wheher he necessary echnology enablers or compeency-based educa-

ion exis. Specically, his is a quesion o soware ha enables suden-driven insrucion,assessmen, and suden suppor. Te answer o his quesion is yeshese ools do

exis. Advances in cogniive science, soware engineering, and human-compuer inerac-

ion are all making i possible o use echnology o creae web-based educaion environ-

mens ha boh suppor he learning process a a granular level and assess suden progress

along he way. Oen called cogniive uor soware, hese online educaion environ-

mens are beginning o make i possible o validae suden learning in new ways.

One o he more visible examples o he changes in measuring suden learning in his way

is he Carnegie Mellon Open Learning Iniiaive. Carnegies open learning courses are

designed by eams composed o aculy, learning scieniss, human-compuer ineracionexpers, and soware engineers in order o make he bes use o mulidisciplinary knowl-

edge or designing eecive learning environmens. Carnegies open learning design eam

ariculaes an iniial se o suden-cenered, measurable learning objecives and designs

he insrucional environmen o suppor sudens in achieving hem. Tese learning

objecives become he rue norh o he compeency ha he suden is rying o achieve.

Nex he cogniive uors ake over and creae a compuerized learning environmen

whose ineracion wih sudens is like hose o a human uormaking commens

when sudens err, answering quesions abou wha o do nex, and mainaining a low

prole when sudens are perorming well. Embedded assessmens and uors in openlearning courses are designed o suppor sudens, bu hey also collec daa on suden

perormance ha is ed back ino he sysem. I is used o guide he suden, he aculy

member eaching he course, he eam ha will produce he nex ieraion o he course,

and learning scieniss who use he daa o creae and rene heories o human learning.

Wesern Governors Universiy, which we menioned earlier, is an accredied possecond-

ary educaion insiuion oering bachelors degrees in our areas using he echnology-

enabled environmens ha perorm he insrucion, assessmen, and suden suppor.6

Addiionally, here are oher soware soluions ha are no necessarily as inegraed,

bu supply pieces o he suden suppor puzzle, including Course Signals developed

a Purdue Universiy and Course SHERPA, or Service-Oriened Higher Educaion

Recommendaion Personalizaion Assisan, developed a Norh Orange Couny

Communiy College. Boh suden-suppor soware ools were proled in CAPs brie

on personalized higher educaion, Te Personalizaion o Higher Educaion: Using

echnology o Enhance he College Experience.7


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Clearly, he echnology exiss o make compeency-based educaion a disrupive innova-

ion, hough hese echnologies are no ye broadly adoped in he possecondary secor.

Business model change

Possecondary educaion leaders and policymakers are oen uncomorable usingerms such as business model o reer o how insiuions o higher educaion unc-

ion. In possecondary educaion, he erm business model simply reers o how leaders

organize people, curriculum, insrucion, aciliies, and echnology o deliver educaion

in a way ha keeps he enerprise nancially viable. In his ligh, he curren business

model is largely a campus-based model, one in which insrucion is a highly variable

process guided by individual aculy and movemen hrough he educaion experience

is ime based. Using his model, sudens si in classrooms or an alloted period o ime

(a semeser or quarer)which also happens o be how schools are compensaed or

delivering heir servicewih individual aculy creaing highly variable learning experi-

ences hrough curriculum and insrucion.

We are now, however, beginning o see alernaive business models emerging ha

are using cenralized curriculum developmen along wih echnology enablers o

sandardize insrucion and assessmen so ha coss can be dramaically reduced

wihin he business model while sill providing a meaningul educaion experience.

Tree examples o emergen approaches o he radiional higher educaion business

model are Wesern Governors Universiy, Sraigherline, and Coursera/Massive Open

Online Courses, or MOOCs.

As previously noed, Wesern Governors Universiy has sandardized curriculumhrough a compeency-based approach o educaion and uses echnology o creae

sel-direced learning or sudens ha are accompanied wih assessmens designed o

demonsrae masery. Tis model has allowed WGU o reduce personnel, curriculum

developmen, and suden-suppor coss while creaing a new business model o deliver

accredied educaion.

Sraigherline, a or-pro, nonaccredied company, provides ye anoher example

o how college-level learning can be delivered hrough a radically low-cos business

model using echnology. Sraigherline, while no compeency-based, oers low-cos

college courses online and hen parners wih colleges and universiies o accep is

learners and give hem credi or coursework oward a degree. Sraigherline sources

is coursework rom open source conen available on he Inerne and also pursues

validaion o learning hrough oher organizaions ha provide his service such as

he American Council on Educaion.


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Equally as innovaive is Coursera, a venure-backed, social enerprise ha has grown

direcly ou o he Massive Open Online Courses phenomenon. MOOCs are college

courses oered online by sar aculy a premier universiies ha are open o anyone

or ree. Coursera is an atemp o creae a business model rom ree and open conen

using is unique draw: Aer all, wha suden wouldn wan o ake a course rom a

sar proessor rom a presigious insiuion? Coursera is building an ineracive pla-

orm ha will al low he bes schools in he world o no only oer a wide range o reecourse lecures online, bu also a sysem o esing, grading, suden-o-suden help,

and awarding cericaes o compleion or which sudens pay a $100 ee. Coursera

is saring wih 40 courses onlinerom compuing o he humaniiesoered by

proessors rom Sanord Universiy, Princeon Universiy, he Universiy o Michigan,

and he Universiy o Pennsylvania.

While no sricly compeency-based, hese are hree dieren echnology-driven busi-

ness models ha are providing atracive alernaives o he radiional, campus-based

possecondary experience.

Value network

Te business models jus described are cerainly indicaive o he emergence o a value

nework, bu one ha is no well esablished o promoe compeency-based educaion.

Wesern Governors Universiy and Sraigherline are sourcing curriculum and echnol-

ogy rom dieren providers o suppor heir businesses. Coursera is building a business

model around credenialing learning rom ree and available conen. ogeher hey

orm an emergen value nework. Te problem is he absence o a common se o agreed

upon sandards, boh educaional and echnological, deailing how a new cohor oeducaional providers would inegrae heir oerings.

As a consequence, he value nework remains underdeveloped. wo eors underway,

however, could help he value nework coalescehe Shared Learning Collaboraive

and he Learning Regisry.

Te Shared Learning Collaboraive is an alliance o saes, oundaion, educaors, con-

en providers, developers, and vendors who are passionae abou using echnology

o improve educaion. Te Shared Learning Collaboraive is suppored by he Bill &

Melinda Gaes Foundaion and he Carnegie Corporaion o New York and is coordi-

naed by Te Council o Chie Sae School Ofcers.

Te Shared Learning Collaboraive is building a se o shared services, aligned wih he

K-12 common core educaion sandards, mean o connec disparae suden daa and

learning conen ha currenly exis in dieren ormas and locaions and don neces-


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sarily inegrae wih one anoher. Te Shared Learning Collaboraive echnology will

include he ollowing:

Middleware: Soware ha inegraes and orchesraes aciviies across dieren sae

sysems, componens, and applicaions enabling hem o inerac

Data store: A secure, cloud-based reposiory or srucured and unsrucuredlearning daa

Dashboards: Ou-o-he-box dashboards o make suden daa more manageable and

useul or educaors in a cusomizable orma

Learning maps: Graphical represenaions o suden learning daa o help visualize

suden achievemens and needs

Application programming interface, or API: An open API o enable vendors and

developers o creae applicaions and conen ha can inerace wih he SharedLearning Collaboraive echnology

Te Learning Regisry is a new approach o capuring, sharing, and analyzing learning

resource daa o broaden he useulness o digial conen o bene educaors and learn-

ers.8 Learning Regisry is sponsored by he U.S. Deparmens o Educaion and Deense

wih suppor rom he Whie House and numerous ederal agencies, nonpro organiza-

ions, inernaional organizaions, and privae companies.

Te Learning Regisry is an open source echnical sysem designed o aciliae he

exchange o daa behind he scenes. I is an open communiy o resource creaors, pub-lishers, curaors, and consumers who are collaboraing o broadly share resources, as

well as inormaion abou how hose resources are used by educaors in diverse learning

environmens across he Web.

Tis eor, begun in 2010,9 is creaing a se o echnical proocols as a plaorm or inno-

vaion by conen auhors and aggregaors.10 Applicaions buil o harness he power

o harvesing and analyzing he Learning Regisry daa will allow educaors o quickly

nd conen specic o heir unique needs. Te Learning Regisry will sore more han

radiional descripive daa (meadaa)i will also allow sharing o raings, commens,

downloads, sandards alignmen, and more.

Boh he Shared Learning Collaboraive and he Learning Regisry are helping promoe

he developmen o new echnology-driven learning producs and services and how

hose services can be ineroperable. Ineroperabiliy, in urn, is he key o he develop-

men o a new value nework.


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Standards environment

A compeency-based educaion canno exis wihou agreed upon sandards or wha a

suden needs o know and compeencies ha, when masered, demonsrae ha hey

have me he sandard.

In possecondary educaion here are iniiaives atemping o develop hese compe-encies. Tese iniiaives end o be parnerships beween possecondary educaion

insiuions and oher sakeholders, especially philanhropic and indusry-based

groups. Les urn now o hree such iniiaiveshe Degree Qualicaions Prole,

he Manuacuring Skills Cericaion Sysem, and he American Naional Sandards

Insiues Accrediaion Program or Cericae Issuers.

Degree Qualifications Profile

Te Degree Qualicaions Prole iniiaive,11 suppored by he Lumina Foundaion or

Educaion, is a ramework or illusraing wha sudens should be expeced o know

and be able o do once hey earn heir possecondary degrees. Te iniiaive proposesspecic learning oucomes and compeencies ha benchmark he associae, bachelors,

and masers degrees along ve dimensions:

Applied learning: used by sudens o demonsrae wha hey can do wih wha

hey know

Intellectual skills: used by sudens o hink criically and analyically abou wha

hey learn

Specialized knowledge: he knowledge sudens demonsrae abou heir individualelds o sudy

Broad knowledge: ranscends he ypical boundaries o sudens rs wo years o higher

educaion and encompasses all learning in broad areas hrough muliple degree levels

Civic learning: enables sudens o respond o social, environmenal, and economic

challenges a local, naional, and global levels

Te Degree Qualicaions Prole iniiaive is currenly parnering wih hree saes

Indiana, Minnesoa, and Uaho build ou he ramework in wo disciplines each. Te

disciplines under consideraion are biology, chemisry, educaion, hisory, physics, and

graphic design.

Manufacturing Skills Certification System

An indusry-driven iniiaive, he Naional Associaion o Manuacurers Manuacuring

Skills Cericaion Sysem has developed a srucure o sackable credenials indicaing ha


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workers have atained compeencies or increasingly sophisicaed levels o work across

many areas o manuacuring, rom machine operaor o engineer o managemen posiions.

Te essenial elemens o he Skills Cericaion Sysem are:

A collecion o compeencies ha ogeher denes a successul, high-perormance

manuacuring workorce Indusry-driven cericaions ha align wih compeencies Bes-in-class curriculum o ariculae ino or-credi educaion pahways ha will

ensure sudens achieve he compeencies necessary o achieve indusry credenials12

Tis iniiaive is already beginning o bridge he worlds o workplace compeencies

and possecondary educaion. In 2011 he Naional Associaion o Manuacurers

announced a parnership wih he Universiy o Phoenix, in which he associaions

compeency-based curriculum and credenials will orm he core o a bachelors in man-

agemen a he online universiy.

ANS I Acc red ita tion of Cer ti ficat e Issuers

Te American Naional Sandards Insiue, or ANSI, is he nonpro member organiza-

ion ha ses U.S. naional sandards or consumer proecion and produc conormiy.

I works wih more han 1,000 businesses, associaions, and governmen agencies o

se sandards or produc ceriers, personnel ceriers, laboraories, and inspecion

bodies. In 2009 ANSI sared a program o ceriy organizaions ha provide educaion

programs yielding one-year cericaes o improve qualiy and rigor in his secor. Unil

now, his secor o he educaion world, which oers hese cericaes, has lacked any

ype o qualiy conrol. Te crieria being used o ensure qualiy emphasize agreed upon

learning oucomes and compeencies and mainain ha:

Learning oucomes are based on indusry inpu and have marke value Te conen augh is aligned wih measureable learning objecivesAssessmen ools measure learning oucomes Inrasrucure assures he coninual success o he cericae programA process ensures he coninuous improvemen o he raining

In is iniial rounds o cericaion, ANSI has accredied 30 organizaions, mosly

proessional associaions, as promoing qualiy cericae programs. Tis is a rs sep in

developing qualiy sandards and compeencies in his secor and can help beter con-

nec i o possecondary educaion.

Compeency-based educaion can sar o ake o once iniiaives such as his build ou

and scale he usage o hese sandards and compeencies. Sudens, aculy, employers,

and policymakers mus all have he same deniion o wha success looks like.


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Conclusion and recommendations

Our analysis clearly demonsraes ha compeency-based educaion does have he

poenial o be a disrupive innovaion in possecondary educaion. Our our-elemen

analyical lens shows ha he echnologies, organizaional experimenaion, and san-

dards are coalescing in ways ha make compeency-based educaion a poenial game

changer in he delivery and aordabiliy o possecondary educaion.

I is clear rom our examples ha possecondary insiuions, policymakers, employers,

and philanhropies are rying o build he inrasrucure necessary or compeency-

based educaion o ake o.

We oer he ollowing recommendaions o urher caalyze his process and urge ed-

eral policymakers o:

1. Encourage experimenaion in compeency-based educaion ha leverages he our

elemens o disrupive innovaion.

Te impending reauhorizaion o he Higher Educaion Ac provides an opporuniy

o modiy he saue o encourage demonsraion projecs and experimenal sies.

We could use a clinical-rials model similar o he Food and Drug Adminisraion, in

which sudens would be inormed ha hey were involved in an experimenal educa-

ional oering and would hus ge discouned uiion o paricipae.

2. Survey sae-level legislaion and iniiaives, in paricular in K-12 online iniiaives,

o caalogue wha policy and regulaory approaches o echnology-enabled, compe-ency-based learning may be applicable o possecondary educaion.

One area o look a would be how are he pilo saes in he Shared Learning

Collaboraive aligning sae purchasing requiremens o allow or cooperaive pur-

chasing? And how is his process being used in possecondary educaion, in paricular

wih gaeway college courses?

A clearinghouse o his ype o inormaion could be made available hrough one o

he iniiaives named above.

3. Hold a convening o business and possecondary educaion leaders o discuss he

value o compeency-based educaion o all sakeholders o promoe leadership and

build consensus on how o move he work orward.


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12 C t A i P | A Di ti L k t C t B d Ed ti

Compeency-based educaion could be he key o providing qualiy, possecondary

educaion o millions o Americans a a lower cos. Bu his ransiion will require poli-

cymakers, insiuion leaders, and oher sakeholders o manage innovaion in he secor

in ways ha respec he srenghs o radiional colleges and universiies ye help build

he business models and value neworks necessary or scaled change.

Louis Soares is a Senior Fellow at the Center or American Progress.

Endnotes

1 National Center on Education Statistics, Dening and Assessing Learning: Exploring Competency Based Initiatives,National Postsecondary Educatio n Cooperative (2002).

2 The eight organizations studied by NPEC were Kings College, North West Missouri University, Sinclair Community College,Hagerstown Community College, Colorado Community Colleges, Western Governors University, Oregon PASS Program and FordMotor Company.

3 Carnegie Mellon Open Learning Initiative, available at http://oli.web.cmu.edu/openlearning/.

4 Sophia, available at http://www.sophia.org/.

5 Regulatory issues are oten included with standards but are not covered in this brie; see Clayton M. Christensen and others,Disrupting College: How Disruptive Innovation Can Deliver Quality and Afordability to Postsecondary Education (Washington:Center or American Progress, 2011), available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/02/disrupting_college.html

6 Innosight Institute, available at http://www.innosightinstitute.org/media-room/publications/education-publications/the-engine-behind-wgu/.

7 Louis Soares, The Personalization o Higher Education (Washington: Center or American Progress, 2011),available at http://w ww.americanprogress.org/issues/2011/10/personalized_higher_education.html.

8 Learning Registry, available at http://www.learningregistry.org/.

9 Department o Education, National Summit Brings Together Technology, Rural Ed Experts to Focus on Solutions or OvercomingDistance, Accessing Resources, Press release, July 21, 2010, available at http://w ww.ed.gov/news/press-releases/national-sum-mit-brings-together-technology-rural-ed-experts-ocus-solutions-over.

10 Technical Guides, available at http://www.learningregistry.org/documents.

11 Lumina Foundation, The Degree Qualications Prole (2011), available at http://www.luminaoundation.org/

publications/The_Degree_Qualications_Prole.pd.

12 About the NAM-Endorsed Manuacturing Skills Certication System, available at http://www.themanuacturinginstitute.org/Education-Workorce/Skills-Certication-System/About/About.aspx.

Documents

A ‘Disruptive’ Look at Competency-Based Education