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A Comparison of the Test Performancesof Male and Female Juvenile DelinquentsJuliet C. Diller aa Department of Psychology , New York University , WashingtonSquare, New York City 3 , USAPublished online: 04 Sep 2012.

To cite this article: Juliet C. Diller (1955) A Comparison of the Test Performances of Male andFemale Juvenile Delinquents, The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on HumanDevelopment, 86:2, 217-236, DOI: 10.1080/00221325.1955.10532196

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The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 1955, 86, 217-236.

A COMPARISON OF THE TEST PERFORMANCES OF MALEAND FEMALE JUVENILE DELINQUENTS'"

Department of Psychology, New York University

JULlET C. D1LLER1

A. INTRODUCTlON

Despite the fact that juvenile delinquents are now referred to in theliterature of the sociologist and psychologist as "youth in conflict with au­thority" (35), it was not so long ago that similar adolescents were categorizedas "moral imbeciles" (10). Kraeplin, some years later, labeled them men­tal defectives who deviated from the usual feebleminded child in that theysuffered from a circumscribed inhibition of development, in contrast withthe general failure of development found in the ordinary imbecile. Healyrealized that boys and girls of average intelligence or higher were oftenguilty of anti-social acts, and so preferred to describe the wayward childas a poorly balanced individual, as a psychopathic personality, and tracedone source of his difficulties to constitutional inferiority. Although the notionof imbecility was dropped by the mid-twenties, many students of delinquentbehavior were not prepared to accept a congenital theory, or, for that matter,anyone theory of dynamics to explain the bases for all manifestations of de­linquency. Since that time, psychiatric and psychological thinking in the fieldreflect wide disparities and varied emphases. The pre-conditions of delin­quency have been ascribed to hereditary origins, to environmental residuals,or to a combination of both forces. Kanner, basing his conclusions on longexperience with children and adolescents, feels that a certain kind of child,with a given degree of inadequacy to adapt himself to the demands of others,most frequently finds himself at odds with his society. He confesses, how­ever, that no single set of dynamics can do justice to the varied psychologicalconditions involved. Henderson generalizes that these offenders are fre­quently people of good intelligence "who throughout their lives, or from acomparatively early age, have exhibited disorders of conduct of an anti­social or asocial nature, usually of the recurrent or episodic type, which inmany instances have proved difficult to influence by methods of social, penal,and medical care and for whom we have no provisions of a preventive or

"'Received in the Editorial Office on January 23, 1933.IThe author wishes to thank Dr. J. j astak and Dr. D. Wechsler for their aid in

the preparation of this manuscript.

217

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218 JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY

curative nature" (10). Also, in a civilization where the concept of originalsin has been abandoned, many zealous defenders of environmental bases fordelinquency are heard. "The determining factor in growth," says Zacharyin the Encyclopedia of Criminology, "is not the individual himself but hisenvironment" (9). In any investigation of hypotheses concerning the basesfor deviant social behavior, however, it must be remembered that manyproducts of coincidental conditions of living have not become problems totheir peers.

The problem stands then: What are the factors that direct an adolescenttoward delinquency? The mere naming of the offense or offender revealsnothing of the determinants of his behavior. What may be granted, at thispoint, is that some degree of maladjustment is a basic component of de­linquent phenomena (35, 32, 22). Its specific characteristics, if any suchexist, are open to wide speculation. Studies in this area are approachedfrom two angles: (a) Delinquency is seen as a social phenomenon and hence,interest is focused on delinquent groups rather than on individuals; (b) de­linquency is viewed as an individual expression of misconduct and conse­quently research is centered about an exploration of the individual delinquentpersonality. It is with the latter approach that we are concerned.

Extant literature on investigations of the psychic structure of the indi­vidual delinquent reveals the preponderant use of interest and attitude ques­tionnaires and personality inventories as valid, objective measures of per­sonality (12, 58, 37, 14, 11, 36). Standard intelligence tests, such as theStanford-Binet and the Wechsler-Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scale, on theother hand, have been relegated to the realm of assessing the intelligencequotient per se and only a limited number of studies (31, 22, 54) haveutilized these reliable facts for broader evaluations of the subject.

One wonders whether the answers to questions about one's own behaviorand affect, no matter how trustworthy the subject may be, are apt to bedistorted by the very affective factors, attitudes, and defense mechanismswhich the investigator is attempting to evaluate. Also, the validity of per­sonality inventories has been seriously questioned recently in a number ofpapers (35, 8).

An intelligence test, in contrast, provides an opportunity for a comparisonof the subject's performance on an extended series of tasks, with the standardperformances of the identical tasks by normal people at the various age levels.It is, perhaps, for this reason that intelligence tests have entered into a newphase of development during recent years. "Any test which calls into playavariety of functions can be used to analyze the harmony or disharmony of

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JULIET C. DILLER 219

the efficiency of these functions," asserts Schafer (44). Psychologists, recog­nizing this valuable by-product, have been quick to seize upon the intelli­gence test as a new, more reliable, objective instrument than hitherto known,to measure the degree of adjustment or maladjustment of each individual.No longer satisfied with the diagnostic value of the total score, or IQ, ora mere statement of quantitative results alone, they have embarked upon aseries of "pattern" or "scatter" analyses of the existing intelligence tests (6,26,39,47,52). The fact that an individual's performance will vary on thedifferent sub-tests of any given test battery has long been known. What hasmore recently been noted is that where this variability is great, it can oftenbe traced to some disturbance or mal-functioning in the individual beingtested. Measures of variability or measures of scatter, therefore, have provedto be fertile clues in detecting the existences and degree of psychopathologypresen t in an individual record (33).

It is with this new tool in mind, then, that we elected to measure the degreeof adjustment or maladjustment existing in a random sampling of male andfemale juvenile delinquents.

The Wechsler-Bellevue rather than the Stanford-Binet intelligence scalewas selected as a measuring rod because of the ;advantages already noted byRabin and Jastak (39, 26) in their work of a similar nature. The Wechsler­Bellevue allows for the presentation of both verbal and performance prob­lems whereas the Stanford-Binet has been found to be predominantly averbal test. Furthermore, the Wechsler-Bellevue is more easily manipulatedin scatter research because of its point scale structure and its standardizationfor the age groups with which we are concerned.

New measures of variability, claiming more refinement and greater dis­criminatory powers, continuously appear in the psychological literature. Ofthese, Jastak has found factor analysis to offer the most systematic formula­tion of the principles underlying all research in scatter. He hypothesizesthat "the main assumption of all psychometric studies should be that eachimportant ability is the direct and simultaneous function of several, pervasivepersonality vectors" (25). He claims that "an improved technique of psy­chometrics may be helpful in isolating the number and nature of independentpersonality traits and in clarifying their dynamic interaction within the uni­fied personality structure ... the idea that psychometric tests are subjectto the influence of traits stems from the observation of test scatter" (26).W olfle endorses him in concluding that: "Each person displays a complicatedpattern of behavior that is his personality. Factor analysis can state the ex­tent to which each factor appears in each person and can thereby describe atotal integrated personality" (57).

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The next logical problem for these men is to discover and identify themany factors essential to an accurate study of personality differences. Wellscomplains that although factor analysts have made a definite contributionto research in personality, they tend to forget the clinician and fail to matchtheir clusters with the clinical situations he meets (55). This was antici­pated by J astak, himself a clinician, who performed a factor analysis of theWechsler-Bellevue and proceeded to distinguish his five clusters in termsof clinical observations (27). It is this study which we have applied to adelinquent population in an attempt to extract patterns in the factorial re­sults which would discriminate male and female offenders. Since the WideRange Reading Achievement Test was included in J astak's factorial analysisand since the Wechsler-Bellevue presents no opportunity for assessing schoolattainments, this test was made part of our investigation.

Additional methods of measuring scatter, which also consider the varia­bility between all the sub-tests to be a basic requirement for an accurateevaluation of the diverse functions called into play during every test admin­istration, were applied to the same collection of data. These include therange ratio proposed by J astak (26), which measures the spread of scores ina particular record by dividing the lowest scores by the highest, the rankingmethod advanced by Rabin (38), the diagnostic sign list published byWechsler (52), and a direct study of the means of the individual sub-scales.It was hoped that an opportunity to enhance the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale asa discriminatory tool would be gained by subjecting our data to these vari­ous techniques.

Recalling that Wechsler found important sex differences in the test per­formances of his wide, random population (52) and that Jastak and Eysenck,in their experience, noted that males tend to do better in some tasks whilefemales are more successful in others (26), it was decided to experimentwith a sampling, separated according to sex but similar in age and generalmanifestations of aberrant, anti-social behavior. Prompted, also, by suchstatements as, "It appears that delinquent girls differ less from the normalthan do wayward boys" (48), and by a desire to find out what, if any, arethe specific abilities of each group in the light of their offenses, a study com­paring the test performances of female delinquents with those of maleoffenders was set up.

B. PROBLEM

The purpose of the following investigation IS: (a) To determine the testperformances of male and female juvenile delinquents on the Wechsler­Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scale, Form I, and the Wide Range Achieve-

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JULIET C. DILLER 221

ment Test. (b) To find out whether the performances yielded on thesetests by male juvenile delinquents are significantly distinguishable from thoseproduced by female juvenile delinquents.

C. METHOD

The Wechsler-Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scale, Form I (52), and theWide Range Reading Achievement Test (23) were administered to a groupof 87 white male delinquents and 80 white female delinquents. These groupswere equated for age, scholastic achievement, and intellectual endowment.Ages ranged from 14 to 16 years of age with a mean age of 15.07 years for theboys and 15.47 years for the girls. The mean grade placement was 8.56 forthe girls and 8.01 for the boys. Global intelligence quotients or IQs fellwithin the low average range for both populations, the mean for the malesbeing 84.43 and for the females 83.60.

Both boys and girls were referred to the Mental Hygiene Clinic of theDelaware State Hospital by the Juvenile Court and various other stateagencies through the years 1945-1949. A random sampling of delinquentoffenses was reflected in both groups. Such charges as truancy, which wasfound to an equal degree in both boys and girls, incorrigibility, curfew neg­lect, and sexual misbehavior, which had a much greater incidence in thefemale population-stealing and larceny, which was predominantly a maleoffense, and assault and battery, were noted.

The raw scores derived as a result of the administration of the 11 sub­tests of the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale plus the Reading test were transmutedinto quotients. The method of transcription used is described in a tabledevised by J astak. This was done in order to make the application of J as­tak's factorial analysis of the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale to our data pos­sible (25).

The individual sub-scale quotients were subjected to the following methodsof scatter analysis:

1. The quotients obtained by the female juvenile delinquents wereanalyzed factorially, according to the cluster analysis devised by J astak forboth tests (25) and were, then, compared with the factors attained by themale juvenile delinquents. The five factors were computed in the follow­ing manner (25):

a. The altitude or intelligence potential was arrived at by averagingthe three highest quotients produced on any of the 12 tests administered (theReading test is included).

b. The language polarity or language development cluster includes

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222 JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY

the vocabulary, information, comprehension, similarities, and reading scales.The highest and lowest quotients, in this group of five tests, were eliminatedand the remaining three scores were averaged to one place beyond the deci­mal point. In order to determine the relationship of performance in thisarea to the altitude, the average was divided by the altitude. The resultingquotient, multiplied by 100 and carried to three places was called thedeviation ratio. This unit of measure was retained as a means of computingthe degree of deviation from the capacity level, as measured by the altitude.

c. The orthotude or reality contact cluster was determined in the samemanner. However, the comprehension, picture arrangement, picture com­pletion, block design, and object assembly sub-tests were the tests includedin this sub-group.

d. The motivation cluster was computed by utilizing the same proce­dure. Here, the arithmetic, digit-span, digit symbol, and reading tests wereused.

e. Somatude or psychomotor efficiency was obtained by computing theblock-design, digit-symbol, information, and picture arrangement in a similarfashion. A clinical interpretation of these factors is offered by Jastak in manyof his articles on this subject (25, 26, 28).

2. The range ratios of both samples were compared. These are themeasures of scatter which were determined by dividing the three lowest sub­scale quotients in each individual record by the three highest.

3. A method of ranking the separate sub-test quotients, as suggested byRabin (38), was applied to the performances of the male and female de­linquents and the consequences were compared.

4. The diagnostic criteria for delinquent psychopaths cited by Wechsler(52) were matched with the results obtained by our population. Only agross comparison was possible, however, since our data were in terms of quo­tients and Wechsler's were in terms of weighted scores. For effective com­parison with the plus and minus sign list, the mean subtest quotients wereranked, the middle ranks being given the sign of O. The sub-test ranksabove 0 were given the sign of +, and the sub-test ranks below 0 were giventhe sign-.

5. A direct comparison of the mean quotients achieved in each indi­vidual sub-scale was made between the male and female populations.

Critical ratios were derived for all comparisons. Any results of 2.58 orhigher were considered as indicative of a significant difference. A criticalratio of 1.96 or more was interpreted as a strong trend in a given direction.

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JULIET C. DILLER 223

D. RESULTS

An application of Jastak's factorial analysis of the W echsler-Bellevue Scaleand the Wide Range Reading Test to our samples of delinquent boys andgirls, provides the two groups with the following characteristics:

TABLE 1A COMPARISON OF CLUSTER SCORES OBTAINED BY MALE AND FEMALE JUVENILE

DELINQUENTS THROUGH JASTAX'S FACTOR ANALYSIS

Altitude Polarity Orthotude Motivat. Somat.

Boys 104.79 78.51 84.85 76.30 81.95 Mean(N = 87) 15.25 8.65 7.25 7.25 7.83 SD

Girls 106.16 78.31 81.75 79.13 81.05 Mean(N = 80) 14.65 7.40 9.25 8.85 7.25 SD

.65 .16 2.39 2.22 .77 CR of means

1. Although there is a wide scatter in the altitude quotients of bothgroups ranging from 71 to 138, the means fall within two points of each otherand on the average level. Any differences which do exist can be attributedto chance rather than to any factors inherent in our sampling.

2. No significant difference is found between the language developmentquotients of either group. Both are reduced to the same marked degree. Ifwe consider 87 as the norm, or average degree of deviation from the alti­tude as found in the general population (27), then we may say that our de­linquents are equally retarded in this cluster, since their mean deviation isapproximately 78. Only 4 per cent of the boys achieve a deviation ratioof 95 and none of the girls do. Two per cent of the boys fall as low as 55while 60 was the lowest degree of deviation attained by 2 per cent of thegirls. Fifty per cent of the boys' scores and 45 per cent of the girls' rangebetween ratios of 75 and 85.

3. Measures of the orthotude or reality perceptions of both samplingsgive evidence of some restriction of functioning. They are not, however,as depressed as those noted in the language cluster. Also, there appears tobe a strong trend towards greater malfunctioning of females in this area thanof male delinquents. The mean deviation ratio of the girls is found to be81.75 as contrasted with the 84.85 achieved by the boys. The possibilitiesare approximately 1.6 in 100 that these differences are due to chance. Adeviation ratio of 95 is reached by 4 per cent of the males and by 5 percent of the females. Only 1 per cent of the boys, however, go as low as 60,as compared with 4 per cent of the girls who measure at that level. Seventy­four per cent of the boys' or tho tudes range between deviation ratios of 80-95.Only 59 per cent of the girls, on the other hand, fall within this category.

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4. Another marked depression is noted in the motivational cluster. Bothgroups are particularly affected by a reduction of functioning in this areaof activity but the deviations of the boys produce even lower results thando the girls. A mean ratio of 76.30 is evoked by the boys in comparisonwith the 79.13 achieved by the girls. There is a strong indication that thisdifference is intrinsic in our population rather than a consequence of chanceprobability. Here, the boys' scores scatter more than do those of the girls,especially in the lower levels. While 1 per cent of the girls reached a devia­tion ratio of 55, 1 per cent of the boys produced a ratio as low as 40. Sixty­three per cent of the boys' scores and 59 per cent of the girls' grouped aboutratios of 70-80.

5. Mild reductions of efficiency are found in the psychomotor cluster.Although they are less severe than those cited in the polarity and motiva­tion factors, it is, perhaps, significant to notice that the degree of limitationof performance is the same for both populations, the boys and girls yieldinga mean deviation ratio of 81.95 and 81.05 respectively. Any differencesfound in the sampling can be explained away as due to extraneous factorsor to chance. Most of the boys' ratios, 62 per cent, and most of the girls'ratios, 67 per cent fall around 75-90. In 3 per cent of the boys and in 3per cent of the girls they reach as high as 95. They fall as low as 60 in2 per cent of the boys and in 1 per cent of the girls.

When the mean range ratios of both groups are studied individually andthen contrasted with each other, it is readily seen that results obtained inboth instances are very similar and that any differences which may be foundprobably are not traceable to any characteristics peculiar to the groups them­selves. The mean range ratio for the males is 63.18 and 61.28 for thefemales. A comparison of these means with a range ratio of 70, which is mostfrequently found in a random, normal population (26) reveals the greaterdegree of scatter present in the performances of our delinquents. The spreadof scores within each mean ratio, however, is great. The male range ratiosscatter from 37 to 82, while the female ratios spread from 49 to 78.

Both male and female juvenile delinquents are very successful in solvingthe problems prescribed by the object assembly and block design sub-tests,

TABLE 2A COMPARISON OF TIlE MEAN RANKS OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUB-TEST QUOTIENTS OF

MALE AND FEMALE JUVENILE DELINQUENTS

Voc. Inf. Com. Sim. D.Sp. Arith. PA PC BD CA D.Sy. Read.

Boys 9 7 4- 10 8 11 5 3 2 1 6 12Girls 8 10 6 5 7 12 4- 11 3 2 1 9

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JULIET C. DILLER 225

the object assembly earning a rank placement of 1 for the boys and 2 forthe girls and the block design reaching second place for the boys and thirdplace for the girls. The picture arrangement and comprehension tests alsorate high positions on the ranking scale, with the former ranking 5 for theboys and 4 for the girls and the latter 4 for the boys and 6 for the girls.Situations which cannot be met with effectively by both populations areoffered particularly by the arithmetic and reading scales, the arithmeticranking 11 for the boys and 12 for the girls and reading 12 for the boysand 9 for the girls. At this point both groups deviate. The females en­counter far greater difficulty in coping with the picture-completion test whichranks eleventh place than do the boys for whom it ranks third place. Theboys, on the other hand, find the similarities test much more complex thando the girls, and can only achieve a rank of 10 in it as compared with thegirls' performances which place it at 5. The digit symbol test makes thehighest scores from the girls while the boys' achievement in this task is onlymediocre.

Wechsler mentions (52) that delinquents produce large differences be­tween their achievements on the Verbal and Performance scales of his test.This finding is corroborated by our study (see Table 3). Similar resultsare produced by both groups in the verbal cluster of tests, the mean verbalquotient of the boys being 83.05 and the girls 80.80. A close coincidence ofscores is also noted in the Performance tasks, where the boys' mean quotientsare 88.90 and the girls' are 86.20. Within each population, however, asignificant difference is discovered between the mean verbal and performancequotients. Thus, there is approximately less than one chance in a hundredthat for male and female delinquents the differences are due to chance.

Another diagnostic clue suggested by Wechsler (52) is the high degreeof probability that the sum of the object assembly and picture arrangementquotients will add up to more than the sum of the block design and picturecompletion tests. This sign is borne out, to a limited extent, by our inves­tigation. Forty-seven boys and 57 girls realize this formula. Both sums arefound to be equal in 3 boys and 2 girls while the quotients of 37 boys and 21girls produce smaller sums in the object assembly and picture arrangementthan in the block design and picture completion.

Despite the fact that no exact comparison with Wechsler's plus and minussign list for psychopathy is possible, we find that a crude sign list based onthe mean quotients given in Table 2 yields, on the whole, similar resultswithin each sex group; however, two sub-scales deviate notably fromthe direction anticipated by Wechsler. Our delinquent boys perform less sue-

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TA

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.25

83.8

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83.0

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.45

78.4

286

.75

86.5

292

.50

95.5

585

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72.4

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88.9

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13.7

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16.9

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19.2

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15.2

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14.7

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81.2

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85.0

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80.4

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90.7

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.70

85.2

592

.39

95.9

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.65

80.8

086

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Mean

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14.5

515

.55

14.2

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14.6

518

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13.9

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1.98

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1.47

1.27

2.91

2.13

.92

4.14

2.97

1.05

1.26

CR

Mean

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JULIET C. DILLER 227

cessfully on vocabulary and do better on comprehension than did Wechsler's.Our girls are worse in picture completion and better on digit symbols.

A direct comparison of the performances of both groups of delinquents onthe individual sub-scales yields statistically insignificant results in seven ofthe tests. Real differences, however, are brought to the fore in the digitsymbol, reading, and picture completion sub-tests. The digit symbol testsevoke the greatest difference, a z-score of 4.14, the girls outdoing the boysby far, although both groups are fairly successful in dealing with this activity.Female delinquents also achieve higher reading quotients, although the meanquotients for both groups are low-72.40 for the boys and 81.65 for thegirls. In contrast, the picture completion test produces far more successfulresponses in the boys, who reach a mean quotient of 86.52, while the girlscan only achieve a mean quotient of 77.70. The same pattern is noticed inthe results on the block-design and information tests where the differencesbetween the two groups are not large enough to be statistically significant butare notable enough to indicate a strong tendency in the direction of male de­linquent superiority in tackling these problems.

E. DISCUSSION

The doctrine of individual differences must be held paramount in any in­vestigation of delinquent behavior. Variations in personality, in general, areso great that, perhaps, no two people have presented, or ever will present, twoidentical constellations of traits. Also, behavior, whether cognitive or not,has numerous causes. The same symptom, appearing in two different in­dividuals, may be the end result of a number of totally different mentaland environmental forces. Yet, the various methods of personality evaluationbeing analyzed in contemporary psychological literature, including our meas­ures of scatter on test performances, mask the peculiarity of some individualswithin the group, while succeeding simultaneously in differentiating betweenone group and another. Factor analysis, for example, as Wolfle points out,"can deal with all elements of personality which are common to a numberof individuals.... It cannot isolate or describe an accidental trait of a singleindividual" (57). The range ratio, while yielding, in our study, positiveresults as an objective measure of general mental fluctuation and variability,does not give any clue as to the different types of scatter within each record.Verbal and performance quotients or averages are statements of the centraltendency of our results which obscure, in the process of computation, themagnitude of the separate scores which comprise it. At present, therefore,it might be better to speak of scatter as a measure of a trend, or as an indi-

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cation of a tendency, rather than as a delineation of a personality pattern. Itis in the light of this limitation that we interpret the results of our experi­ment.

Employing Jastak's finding that "the range ratios of the Wechsler-Bellevuetest are considerably smaller in all abnormal groups than they are in thenormal population" (26) in conjunction with Wechsler's discovery that"differences between verbal and performance test scores, particularly whenlarge ... are frequently associated with certain types of mental pathology"(52) as criteria, we are able to say that our more gross measures of scattergive positive evidence of maladjustment in both our male and female delin­quent populations. The average delinquent emerges more variable, moredisorganized, less composed, and less well-integrated than do normal adoles­cents. Studies by Diller and Jastak (13.26) on the range ratio, and workby Uhler, Levi and Wechsler (51, 31, 52) on the verbal and performancecomparisons corroborate this picture. It is necessary to point out here thata bit more than 20 per cent of the delinquents do achieve a range ratio scoreof 70 or higher and do solve verbal problems as successfully or more suc­cessfully than they do performance tasks. By the same criteria, these boys andgirls would be eligible for the label "normal, well-adjusted personalities";the vast majority, however, in both groups, meet the standards mentionedfor malfunctioning.

Merely classifying our sampling as a predominantly disturbed group yieldslittle information concerning the dynamics and kinds of psychological de­fects which band together to produce the disorders. In which areas of func­tioning do delinquent adolescents prove ineffective? What sort of situationsfrustrate them? Which spheres of activity evoke better results from thegirls and where do the boys shine? What are their resources and in whatactivities do they tend to encounter difficulties?

A careful perusal of the results obtained from the application of a finer,more illuminating measure of scatter to our data elicits a more clearly-definedpicture. Jastak's factor analysis of the Wechsler-Bellevue affords us theopportunity of evaluating the behavior of our offenders in situations demand­ing adequate mental endowment, verbal facility, social acuity, and physicalprowess. Many of the characteristics revealed. by our groups have alreadybeen noted by other investigators in the manipulation of their particulardata. Some features emerge here for the first time.

With the possible exception of Levi (31) and Healy (18), most studentsof delinquency are able to conclude that the mean IQ of both wayward boysand girls, fall within the low-average range (l, 11, 17, 32). Levi and

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JULIET C. DILLER 229

Wedekind found their sampling to approach more closely average adolescents'intelligence. Jastak, on the other hand, claims that the 1Q is an average ofall test scores, while an average of the three highest quotients only yieldsa far more accurate picture of the subject's intellectual capacity (27). Withthis measure as a guide, we are able to estimate the caliber of work he wouldproduce were he functioning at his best in all spheres of activity. Thisaltitude is not a measure of ability. It is rather an abstraction. "It is apotentiality, not an actuality." Viewed in this light, male and female de­linquents, says J astak, are potentially of average intelligence (26). Ourresults corroborate his findings. True, some delinquents of inferior mental.endowment are part of both our groups, but some superior offenders find theirway there too.

"An average personality is one which deviates (from the altitude) in mostgroup factors to an average extent ... in comparison with a person of hisage" (25). It is here that our delinquents diverge from the population atlarge. Most of their test performances deviate from their individual refer­ence points, that is, from their intellectual potential, to an abnormal degree.

In the realm of language development, both wayward boys and girls ofsimilar intelligence fall below the average achieved by most youngsters oftheir age. This is also noted by other investigators, using different techniques,in this field. Babcock notes it, as does Glanville (4, 17), who considersthis to be the outstanding feature of delinquent boys, and Kavaraceus (30)in his study of behavior problems in school, Weider (54), Levi (31),Wechsler (52) and Jastak (22) in their work with problem children. Mostdelinquent boys and girls experience difficulty in acquiring and applyingverbal symbols. Proficiency in mastering verbal functions, such as reading,spelling, vocabulary, and cultural information, is usually impaired. Read­ing reversals, speech defects, reading and writing disabilities appear in manyrecords. As a result, success in school, which is primarily a linguistic situa­tion, is often lacking. Although the mean age of our boys is 15.07, mostof them have just begun the eighth grade. The girls exhibit a correspondingretardation in grade placement. Kavaraceus, in his extensive survey ofchildren referred to his bureau for truancy, incorrigibility, et cetera, dis­covered that almost all of the boys and girls repeated one or more grades.During the summer vacation, he noticed, the number of referrals for aberrantbehavior fell off. He interprets the undesirable behavior, then, as a revoltor escape from an environment which provokes continuous failure and con­flict. He finds many supporters of this view (11, 4, 51, 17, 6). Ash, in hisstudy of 85 delinquents, emerges with a discrepancy of 2.07 between grade

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230 JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY

placement and achievement. Our girls rate a reading grade of 6.9 and theboys only reach 5.9. Both are placed in the eighth grade. Less than 10 percent in each group exhibit verbal adroitness. We are justified in concludingthat "juvenile delinquents exhibit a far greater degree of educational re­tardation than mental retardation" (48).

Although boys and girls both, suffer from some reduction of efficiency inthe sphere of reality contact, a strong tendency to unearth greater distortionsof perception among the girls comes to the surface. The female offender ismore likely to be less competent socially, less alert to events taking placeabout her, less resourceful when confronted with practical problems, than isher brother delinquent. Her judgment tends to be poor, her interpreta­tions of human behavior often inaccurate. Consequently, she is apt to bemore suggestible and less discriminating than is her male counterpart. Astudy by Middleton and Wright (36), contrasting the performances of de­linquent boys and girls with normal adolescents on the Thurstone AttitudeScales, concludes that delinquent girls are more favorably disposed towardthe concepts of the reality of God, and the necessity for church and law,than are either delinquent boys or normal youth. Jastak and Allen (22)describe the wayward girl as "over-responsive to social stimuli" and moreconforming than are the boys. It is perhaps not surprising, then, that shetends to submit to immoral conduct. Innumerable investigators agree thatsexual misconduct is usually an offense found among the female delinquents.Abel and Kinder (1) report "the most frequent sex offender seen in thejuvenile court is the adolescent, subnormal girl, who is less discriminating inselecting those with whom she wishes to associate than is her more intelligentfriend." Barker, Kounin, and Wright (5) note that a precocious manifesta­tion of interest in the opposite sex is the predominant feature of the 400females in the New York Training School for Girls. Wittman and Hoff­man (56) and J astak (22) concur with this. An evaluation of the recordsof a nucleus of 28 female sex offenders from the larger body of our groupreaffirms this personality pattern. (Only 9 boys were referred to the clinicfor sex offenses). The sexual delinquent is more deficient in the ability toexercise discriminating judgment and to behave appropriately than are hersister delinquents. Hers tends to be the most withdrawn, submissive pat­tern of behavior of both groups tested. The boys, on the other hand, whilemore intelligent socially, are inclined, in their aggression, to manipulatetheir environment to their own advantage in a socially undesirable way.

Other factors in their test performances serve to confirm this impression.The motivational cluster, which measures the degree of persistence and pur-

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JULIET C. DILLER 231

poseful effort a person is capable of applying, produces the greatest depressionof scores. Here, there is a tendency for the boys to behave even more im­pulsively than do the girls. Both, however, tend to yield to momentary temp­tations and immediate pleasures in lieu of engaging in goal-striving activityin an effort to realize long-range, worthwhile aims. As Adison and Sugar(2) have found in their work with 25 white, male offenders, between 16and 20 years of age, they are unable to sustain their efforts in terms ofeducational and vocational achievements. Jobs are of short duration. Glan­ville (17) claims that they are unable to conform to the demands of school.They flee from intolerable situations, yielding, instead, to activities whichproduce some degree of immediate satisfaction. Kavaraceus (30) thinksthat they are unable to profit from experience, that most of their crimes areunplanned and impulsively executed. Sadler (48) speculates that the aver­age delinquent tends to allow isolated occurrences to occupy too great aplace in his consciousness. He considers that the delinquent's temptationto commit a crime occurs in an isolated situation which, in his mind, has littleor no relationship to his life as a whole. Birkiness and Johnson (7)report that normal adolescents are more reliable and responsible than arethe 25 delinquents they studied. Jastak and Allen (22) describe bothboys and girls as lacking in real drive despite their hyperactivity. Girls,however, tend to be less restless than boys. Our data bears this out whenexamined in the light of the reduced motivational scores. While we can statewith Lowry (32) that both groups exhibit a low frustration tolerance anda high degree of egocentricity, we must pause to point out that more girlsin our population reveal traits of dependability, conformity, and perseverance(14 per cent) than do boys (7 per cent).

Physically, the delinquent is inclined to be less graceful and less skilled intackling mechanical tasks, despite his higher performance quotient, than is hiswell-adjusted contemporary. Although not as deficient in these skills as heis in the spheres of verbal and motivational development, his quotients arelow enough to be described as somewhat inadequate. Here, female and maleperformances closely coincide on the over-all evaluation. Both tend to besomewhat clumsy and awkward. Motor coordination is slow. More than80 per cent of both samplings are apt to fit this description. It is interestingto observe that this particular sphere of functioning has been vastly neg­lected by students of delinquency. Few statistical studies are available.

According to J astak's factor analysis then, our male delinquent populationcoincides, by and large, with his hypotheses that "a majority of juvenile de­linquents are inferior or defective in polarity, motivation, and psychomotor

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232 JOURN AL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY

efficiency. They are average in altitude and high in reality contact" (22).Our females, however, tend to exhibit reduced efficiency in the area of realitycontact as well. In general, also, our deviations from the altitude are notas pronounced in either direction as his seem to be.

An even more direct study, however, is necessary at this point to discoverthe exact distribution of the particular abilities associated with a given clus­ter. No comparison of traits between two groups could be effected accuratelywithout a direct reference to the specific test quotients and to their relation­ships to each other within the specific protocol. In an effort to clarify theactual kinds of abilities and impairments to which delinquents are prone, acareful analysis of their performances on the individual sub-tests was deemednecessary.

Despite the same degree of depression of verbal scores in general, femaledelinquents, for example, tend to be somewhat better readers than are themales who perform least successfully in this area. Boys, however, give indi­cations of being more interested in accumulating odd facts about the worldaround them than are the girls. While both produce similar degrees ofproficiency in somatic activities, the girls are more adroit in executing fine,routine manual tasks, while the boys make their best showing on the block­design sub-test which requires a more gross manipulation of the physicalenvironment and an alertness to spatial cues. The fact that the difference,in this case, is so great between the two groups, combined with the fact thatJ astak (22) and Diller (13) found normal girls to be superior in dealingwith this problem, prompts the speculation that success on the digit-symboltest is a distinguishing feminine trait rather than delinquent trait. Perhaps,this is why women usually enjoy fine, precise motor skills, such as sewing,weaving, and knitting, more than men do.

The statistically significant difference found in the scores achieved by theboys and girls on the picture completion test points, at first, to a corroborationof the evaluation of a reduced contact with reality for female delinquents.They seem to be less observant of what is going on about them. A compari­son, however, with Jastak's (22) and Diller's (13) results in their workwith normal girls who performed poorly in this area, again urges us to won­der whether a feminine component is part of this trait too.

An inclination in the direction of psychopathy, as distinguished by Wech­sler, is detected in the good scores achieved by both groups on the picture­arrangement and object assembly tests. Social intelligence, says Wechsler(52), seems to be divorced from resulting behavior. Neither boys nor girlsdo especially well in practical situations and both groups fail to meet the

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JULIET C. DILLER 233

demands for concentration and mental alertness set up by the arithmeticsub-test. "It appears," says Wechsler, "that children who do poorly inarithmetic reasoning often have difficulty with other school subjects" (52).

I t must be remembered that all sub-test comparisons are being made byutilizing the mean quotients as basic units of measurement. The limitationsin the use of such a tool, accompanied by the fact that the spread of the scoreswithin each sub-test is very large, should provoke some caution in the appli­cation of our results to an analysis of the individual delinquent's personality.There are, for instance, some delinquents, in both populations, who did wellin arithmetic and poorly in the object-assembly test. Their behavior was,nevertheless, anti-social in character.

Despite the positive results obtained by subjecting our data to the variousmethods of scatter analysis, the significance of our study is restricted by theparticular instruments employed. Most of our conclusions were compared withfindings arrived at through the administration of different tests. Only Jastakand Allen (22), Levi (31), and Weider (54) have used the W echsler- Belle­vue on their problem children. Also, generalizations from the performancesof a selected population, on a specific test battery, is not any more warrantedthan are generalizations from performances on one test to another. Shafer( 43), for example, complains: "Gililand found the average score of aschizophrenic, on the picture completion test, to be among the highest, whileMagaret and we found it to be among the lowest." If clinicians are care­ful to offer an assessment of the personality only after closely examiningthe history and background of the subject in conjunction with his own clinicalimpression and the test results, the pitfalls of a rigid and inaccurate applica­tion of measuring tools will be avoided.

F. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A study of the test performances of 80 female juvenile delinquents and 87male juvenile delinquents, matched for age, grade placement, and globalintelligence quotient, on the Wechsler-Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scaleand the Wide Range Achievement tests yielded the following results for thegroup as a whole:

1. Factorially: (a) Both boys and girls are endowed with the same de­gree of potential intelligence. (b) Both boys and girls exhibit the samedegree of impairment in verbal development. (c) The boys reveal a strongtendency for superiority in the sphere of reality contact or orthotude, asidentified by Jastak, although some impairment is evident in both samplings.(d) Both boys and girls produce low scores in the motivational cluster. The

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234 JOURNAL OF GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY

REFERENCES

girls, however, are inclined to be somewhat more self-controlled than theboys. (e) Both boys and girls emerge with the same degree of mild inade­quacy in the somatatude or psychomotor area of functioning.

2. In terms of ranking: (a) The object assembly, block designs, andpicture arrangement sub-tests achieve high rank placements for both populations. (b) The arithmetic scores rate very low ranks for males and females(c) Significant differences are attained in the results of the picture com­pletion test, which ranks high for the boys and low for the girls, and thedigit-symbol sub-scale, which ranks mediocre for the boys and high for thegirls, and the reading test, which ranks lowest for the boys and mediocrefor the girls.

3. Using the Wechsler Sign List for adolescent psychopaths as a cri­terion: (a) The verbal and performance quotients of both groups of delin­quents are significantly different from each other, the performance quotientusually being the higher of the two. (b) The sum of the object assemblyand picture arrangement tests is higher than the sum of the block design andpicture completion tests in 50 per cent of the boys' records and a bit morethan that in the girls' protocols. (c) Gross parallelisms only were foundto exist between the plus and minus sign list and our distribution of sub-testdeviations.

4. The mean range ratios of both wayward groups are lower than theresults usually achieved by the population at large, indicating the presence ofsome degree of maladjustment in our delinquents.

The significance of these findings in terms of actual and anticipated be­havior is discussed.

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Department of PsychologyNew York University

Washington SquareNew York City 3

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