25
Chapter 9 9.1 – Solutions 9.2 – Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 9.3 – Solubility 9.4 – Solution Concentrations and Reactions 9.5 – Dilution of Solutions 9.6 – Properties of Solutions Chapter 9 Identify the solute and solvent in a solution. Describe the formation of a solution. A solution is a homogeneous mixture in which one substance, called the solute, is uniformly dispersed (dissolved) in another substance, called the solvent. Review: a homogenous mixture is a combination of 2+ substances that are uniform throughout. Visually, it appears as composed of one substance. Example: milk

9.2 – Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 9.3 – Solubility 9 ...ion.chem.usu.edu/~scheiner/LundellChemistry/...9.1 – Solutions 9.2– Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 9.3 – Solubility

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  • Ch

    apte

    r 9

    9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    Ide

    nti

    fyth

    eso

    lute

    and

    solv

    ent

    ina

    solu

    tio

    n.

    De

    scri

    be

    the

    form

    atio

    no

    faso

    luti

    on

    .

    A s

    olu

    tion

    is a

    ho

    mo

    ge

    ne

    ous

    m

    ixtu

    re in

    whi

    ch o

    ne

    sub

    stan

    ce, c

    alle

    d th

    e s

    olu

    te,

    is u

    nif

    orm

    ly d

    isp

    ers

    ed

    (d

    isso

    lve

    d)

    in a

    noth

    er

    sub

    stan

    ce, c

    alle

    d th

    e

    solv

    ent.

    Rev

    iew

    : a h

    omog

    enou

    s m

    ixtu

    re is

    a c

    om

    bin

    atio

    n o

    f 2+

    sub

    stan

    ces

    that

    are

    un

    ifo

    rm th

    roug

    ho

    ut. V

    isua

    lly, i

    t ap

    pe

    ars

    as c

    om

    po

    sed

    of o

    ne

    su

    bst

    ance

    . Exa

    mp

    le: m

    ilk

  • Th

    e s

    olu

    te a

    nd

    so

    lve

    nt d

    o n

    ot r

    eact

    wit

    h

    eac

    h o

    ther

    an

    d s

    o th

    ey c

    an b

    e m

    ixed

    in

    vary

    ing

    pro

    por

    tion

    s.

    Salt

    wat

    er

    is a

    so

    luti

    on

    Solv

    en

    t = w

    ate

    r (p

    rese

    nt in

    larg

    er

    amo

    unt)

    Solu

    te=

    salt

    (sm

    alle

    r am

    oun

    t)

    Dif

    fere

    nta

    mo

    unto

    fsal

    tcan

    be

    dis

    solv

    ed

    inw

    ate

    r.

    Aso

    luti

    on

    has

    at l

    eas

    t on

    e s

    olu

    te

    dis

    pe

    rse

    d in

    a s

    olv

    en

    t, an

    d c

    an h

    ave

    mo

    re.

    Solu

    tes

    and

    so

    lve

    nts

    may

    be

    so

    lid

    s, li

    qui

    ds,

    or

    gas

    es.

    Th

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n th

    at fo

    rms

    has

    the

    sam

    e p

    hysi

    cal s

    tate

    as

    the

    sol

    vent

    .

    Exa

    mp

    le:w

    he

    nsu

    gar

    crys

    tals

    dis

    solv

    e in

    wat

    er,

    the

    resu

    ltin

    gso

    luti

    on

    isa

    liq

    uid

    .Su

    gar

    –so

    lute

    (s)

    Wat

    er

    –so

    lve

    nt(

    l)

    Exa

    mp

    le: S

    oft

    dri

    nks

    are

    car

    bo

    nat

    ed

    by

    dis

    solv

    ing

    C

    O2

    in w

    ate

    r an

    d is

    a li

    qui

    d.

    CO

    2–

    solu

    te(g

    )W

    ate

    r –

    solv

    en

    t (l)

    Wat

    er

    is o

    ne

    of t

    he m

    ost

    co

    mm

    on

    so

    lve

    nts

    in

    nat

    ure,

    than

    ks

    to it

    s st

    ruct

    ure

    an

    d p

    rop

    ert

    ies:

    Wat

    er

    isp

    ola

    r.

    Wat

    er

    can

    hyd

    rog

    en

    bon

    d.

  • Th

    e s

    har

    ed

    ele

    ctro

    ns

    in e

    ach

    of t

    he

    O-H

    bo

    nd

    s in

    wat

    er

    are

    he

    ld

    tig

    hte

    r to

    Oxy

    ge

    n th

    an to

    Hyd

    rog

    en

    . T

    his

    isb

    eca

    use

    Oxy

    ge

    nis

    mo

    ree

    lect

    ron

    eg

    ativ

    eth

    anH

    ydro

    ge

    n.

    Th

    us,t

    he

    O-H

    bo

    nd

    sar

    ep

    olar

    .

    Be

    caus

    e th

    e s

    hap

    e o

    f a w

    ate

    r m

    olec

    ule

    is b

    en

    t, it

    s d

    ipo

    le d

    on

    ’t ca

    nce

    l out

    . T

    hus

    the

    en

    tire

    mo

    lecu

    le is

    pol

    aran

    d w

    ate

    r is

    sai

    dto

    be

    a p

    olar

    sol

    ven

    t.

    Hyd

    rog

    en b

    ond

    s: th

    e a

    ttra

    ctio

    n b

    etw

    ee

    n a

    par

    tial

    ly p

    osi

    tive

    H a

    tom

    an

    d a

    st

    ron

    gly

    ele

    ctro

    ne

    gat

    ive

    ato

    m o

    f F, O

    , or

    N.

    Wat

    er

    mo

    lecu

    les

    are

    lin

    ked

    tog

    eth

    er

    via

    hyd

    rog

    en

    bon

    ds.

    Hyd

    rog

    en

    bo

    nds

    are

    imp

    ort

    anti

    nth

    ep

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofb

    iolo

    gic

    alco

    mp

    oun

    ds

    such

    as

    pro

    tein

    s, c

    arb

    ohy

    dra

    tes,

    an

    d D

    NA

    .

    Th

    e a

    vera

    ge

    ad

    ult i

    s ab

    out

    60%

    wat

    er

    by

    mas

    s ad

    the

    ave

    rag

    e in

    fant

    is a

    bo

    ut 7

    5%

    wat

    er.

    Ab

    out

    60%

    oft

    he

    bo

    dy’

    sw

    ate

    ris

    con

    tain

    ed

    wit

    hin

    the

    cell

    s.T

    he

    oth

    er

    40%

    mak

    es u

    p

    extr

    ace

    llul

    ar fl

    uid

    s, w

    hich

    incl

    ude

    the

    in

    ters

    titi

    al fl

    uid

    in ti

    ssue

    an

    d th

    e p

    lasm

    a in

    th

    e b

    lood

    .

    Eve

    ryd

    ay y

    ou lo

    se b

    etw

    ee

    n 1

    500-

    3000

    mL

    of w

    ate

    r.

    Seri

    ous

    de

    hyd

    rati

    on c

    an o

    ccur

    in a

    n a

    dul

    t if t

    here

    is

    a 10

    % n

    et l

    oss

    in to

    tal b

    od

    y fl

    uid

    ; a 2

    0% lo

    ss o

    f flu

    id

    can

    be

    fata

    l.

    An

    infa

    nt s

    uffe

    rsse

    vere

    de

    hyd

    rati

    on

    wit

    h o

    nly

    5-10

    % lo

    ss in

    bo

    dy

    flui

    d.

    Wat

    er

    loss

    isco

    ntin

    ually

    rep

    lace

    db

    yth

    eli

    qui

    ds

    and

    fo

    od

    s in

    the

    die

    t an

    d fr

    om

    me

    tab

    oli

    c p

    roce

    sse

    s th

    at

    pro

    duc

    e w

    ate

    r in

    the

    cel

    ls in

    the

    bo

    dy.

  • No

    t all

    co

    mb

    inat

    ion

    s o

    f so

    lute

    an

    d s

    olv

    en

    t re

    sult

    in a

    so

    luti

    on

    .

    Ste

    ps

    tofo

    rmin

    g a

    so

    luti

    on

    :1.

    Bre

    ak s

    olu

    te-s

    olu

    te a

    nd

    so

    lve

    nt-

    solv

    en

    t at

    trac

    tio

    ns

    (ene

    rgy

    req

    uire

    d)

    2.Fo

    rmso

    lute

    -so

    lve

    nt a

    ttra

    ctio

    ns

    (ene

    rgy

    rele

    ased

    )

    Oil

    an

    d w

    ate

    r h

    ave

    dif

    fere

    nt

    po

    lari

    tie

    s, s

    o th

    ey w

    ill n

    ot

    form

    a s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Ste

    ps

    to fo

    rmin

    g a

    so

    luti

    on

    :1.

    Bre

    ak s

    olu

    te-s

    olu

    te a

    nd

    so

    lve

    nt-

    solv

    en

    t at

    trac

    tion

    s (e

    nerg

    y re

    qui

    red)

    2.

    For

    m s

    olu

    te-s

    olv

    en

    t at

    trac

    tion

    s (e

    nerg

    y re

    leas

    ed)

    In o

    rder

    to p

    rovi

    de

    the

    en

    erg

    y fo

    r St

    ep

    1 to

    occ

    ur, t

    he

    so

    lute

    an

    d s

    olv

    en

    t par

    ticl

    es

    mus

    t be

    att

    ract

    ed

    to e

    ach

    othe

    r.

    Thi

    s o

    ccur

    s w

    he

    n th

    e s

    olu

    te a

    nd

    so

    lve

    nt h

    ave

    sim

    ilar

    p

    olar

    ities

    .

    LIK

    E d

    isso

    lve

    s LI

    KE

    Pol

    ar s

    olu

    tes

    dis

    solv

    e in

    Pol

    ar s

    olve

    nts

    Non

    pol

    arso

    lute

    sd

    isso

    lve

    inN

    onp

    olar

    solv

    ents

    .

    Pola

    r

    No

    np

    ola

    r

    Wat

    er

    DM

    SOE

    than

    ol

    Ace

    ton

    e

    Oil

    Gre

    ase

    Be

    nze

    ne

    Hex

    ane

    Top

    laye

    r: w

    ate

    r (p

    ola

    r)B

    ott

    om

    laye

    r: m

    eth

    yle

    ne

    ch

    lori

    de,

    CH

    2Cl 2

    (no

    np

    ola

    r)

  • Ion

    ic c

    omp

    oun

    ds

    wil

    l d

    isso

    lve

    in p

    olar

    sol

    ven

    ts.

    Wh

    en

    NaC

    lcry

    stal

    s ar

    e p

    lace

    d in

    wat

    er,

    par

    tial

    ly

    ne

    gat

    ive

    oxy

    ge

    n a

    tom

    s in

    the

    wat

    er

    mo

    lecu

    les

    attr

    act

    the

    po

    sitiv

    e N

    a+io

    ns.

    Th

    e p

    arti

    ally

    po

    sitiv

    e h

    ydro

    ge

    n

    ato

    ms

    in o

    the

    r w

    ate

    r m

    ole

    cule

    s at

    trac

    t ne

    gat

    ive

    Cl-

    ion

    s.

    Luri

    ng

    ind

    ivid

    ual

    ion

    s aw

    ay fr

    om

    the

    cry

    stal

    .

    As

    soo

    n a

    s a

    wat

    er

    mo

    lecu

    les

    lure

    s a

    Na+

    or

    Cl-

    off

    on

    its

    own

    , oth

    er

    wat

    er

    mo

    lecu

    les

    wil

    l sur

    roun

    d it

    , hyd

    rati

    ng

    it.

    Hyd

    rati

    on

    oft

    he

    ion

    sd

    imin

    ish

    es

    the

    irat

    trac

    tio

    n to

    oth

    er

    ion

    s an

    d k

    ee

    ps

    the

    n in

    so

    luti

    on

    .

    NaC

    l(s)

    N

    a+(a

    q)

    +C

    l- (aq

    )H

    2O

    Co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    con

    tain

    ing

    no

    np

    ola

    r m

    ole

    cule

    s, s

    uch

    as

    iod

    ine

    (I

    2), o

    il, o

    r g

    reas

    e, d

    o n

    ot d

    isso

    lve

    in w

    ate

    r b

    eca

    use

    the

    re

    are

    ess

    en

    tial

    ly n

    o a

    ttra

    ctio

    ns

    be

    twe

    en

    the

    par

    ticl

    es

    of a

    n

    on

    po

    lar

    solu

    te a

    nd

    the

    po

    lar

    solv

    en

    t.

    No

    np

    ola

    r so

    lute

    s re

    qui

    re n

    on

    po

    lar

    solv

    en

    ts fo

    ra

    solu

    tio

    n to

    fo

    rm.

    Lik

    e d

    isso

    lves

    Lik

    e

    9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    Ide

    nti

    fy s

    olu

    tes

    as e

    lect

    roly

    tes

    or

    no

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes.

  • Solu

    tes

    can

    be

    cla

    ssif

    ied

    by

    the

    ir a

    bil

    ity

    to c

    on

    duc

    t an

    ele

    ctri

    cal c

    urre

    nt.

    Som

    e c

    om

    po

    und

    s d

    isso

    ciat

    ein

    toio

    ns

    wh

    en

    put

    into

    solu

    tio

    n:

    AB

    (s,l

    , or

    g)

    A+

    (aq

    ) +

    B- (

    aq)

    Ion

    s co

    nd

    uct e

    lect

    rici

    ty.

    Ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s: c

    om

    po

    und

    s th

    at d

    isso

    ciat

    e in

    to io

    ns

    and

    co

    nd

    uct e

    lect

    rici

    ty.

    Non

    elec

    trol

    ytes

    :co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    that

    do

    notd

    isso

    ciat

    e i

    nto

    ion

    s an

    d th

    ere

    fore

    do

    not

    con

    duc

    t ele

    ctri

    city

    .

    solv

    en

    t

    Ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s ca

    n b

    e fu

    rth

    er

    clas

    sifi

    ed

    as

    stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s o

    rw

    eak

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s.

    Stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    sfo

    rm fr

    om

    co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    dis

    soci

    atin

    g c

    om

    ple

    tely

    into

    po

    sitiv

    e a

    nd

    n

    eg

    ativ

    e io

    ns

    wh

    en

    ad

    de

    d to

    so

    luti

    on

    :

    NaC

    l(s)

    Na+

    (aq

    )+

    Cl- (

    aq)

    Stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s co

    nd

    uct e

    lect

    rici

    ty v

    ery

    we

    ll. (

    Th

    e li

    gh

    tbul

    b w

    oul

    d h

    ave

    a b

    rig

    ht g

    low

    .)

    Co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    that

    do

    this

    incl

    ude

    : all

    so

    lub

    le io

    nic

    co

    mp

    oun

    ds,

    ce

    rtai

    n m

    ole

    cula

    r co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    (str

    on

    g a

    cid

    s an

    d b

    ase

    s. M

    ore

    to c

    om

    e in

    ch

    apte

    r 11

    .)

    H2O

    Ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s ca

    n b

    e fu

    rth

    er

    clas

    sifi

    ed

    as

    stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s o

    rw

    eak

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s.

    Wea

    kel

    ectr

    olyt

    esfo

    rm fr

    om

    co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    that

    on

    ly p

    arti

    ally

    dis

    soci

    ate

    into

    po

    sitiv

    e

    and

    ne

    gat

    ive

    ion

    s w

    he

    n a

    dd

    ed

    to s

    olu

    tio

    n:

    HF (

    aq)

    H

    +(a

    q)

    +F-

    (aq

    )

    We

    ak e

    lect

    roly

    tes

    con

    duc

    t ele

    ctri

    city

    , but

    no

    t as

    stro

    ng

    as

    stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s. T

    his

    is

    due

    to fe

    w io

    ns

    (as

    mo

    st o

    f th

    e H

    F is

    in th

    e fo

    rm o

    f th

    e m

    ole

    cule

    an

    d n

    ot t

    he

    ion

    s.)

    Th

    e li

    gh

    tbul

    b w

    ill b

    e d

    im.

    Co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    that

    wil

    l do

    this

    are

    ce

    rtai

    n m

    ole

    cula

    r co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    (we

    ak a

    cid

    s an

    d

    bas

    es

    –to

    co

    me

    in c

    hap

    ter

    11).

  • Mo

    st m

    ole

    cula

    r co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    do

    notd

    isso

    ciat

    e in

    to io

    ns

    but

    re

    mai

    n 1

    00%

    mo

    lecu

    les.

    T

    he

    se d

    o n

    ot c

    on

    duc

    t ele

    ctri

    city

    due

    to la

    ck o

    f io

    ns

    and

    are

    the

    refo

    re

    non

    elec

    trol

    ytes

    . CH

    3OH

    (l)

    CH

    3OH

    (aq

    )

    Th

    e li

    gh

    tbul

    b w

    on

    ’t li

    gh

    t up

    .

    Mo

    st m

    ole

    cula

    r co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    are

    no

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes.

    H2O

    Ide

    nti

    fyth

    efo

    llow

    ing

    asst

    ron

    ge

    lect

    roly

    te, w

    eak

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    , or

    no

    ne

    lect

    roly

    te:

    K2S

    O4(

    s)2K

    +(a

    q)

    + S

    O42

    - (aq

    )

    NH

    3(g

    )+

    H2O

    (l)

    NH

    4+(a

    q)

    + O

    H- (

    aq)

    C6H

    12O

    6(s)

    C6H

    12O

    6(aq

    )

    H2O

    H2O

    Ind

    icat

    e w

    he

    the

    r th

    e a

    que

    ous

    so

    luti

    on

    s o

    f eac

    h o

    f th

    e fo

    llow

    ing

    so

    lute

    s co

    nta

    in o

    nly

    io

    ns,

    on

    ly m

    ole

    cule

    s, o

    r m

    ost

    ly m

    ole

    cule

    wit

    h fe

    w io

    ns:

    Ace

    tic

    acid

    , HC

    2H3O

    2, w

    eak

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    NaB

    r, a

    stro

    ng

    ele

    ctro

    lyte

    Fruc

    tose

    , C6H

    12O

    6, a

    no

    ne

    lect

    roly

    te

  • Wri

    te a

    bal

    ance

    d e

    qua

    tio

    n fo

    r th

    e d

    isso

    ciat

    ion

    of t

    he

    str

    on

    g e

    lect

    roly

    tes

    in w

    ate

    r:

    KC

    l

    Fe(N

    O3)

    3

    Bo

    dy

    flui

    ds

    and

    intr

    ave

    no

    us (

    IV)

    solu

    tio

    ns

    con

    tain

    a m

    ixtu

    re o

    f ele

    ctro

    lyte

    s, s

    uch

    as

    Na+

    , Cl- ,

    K+, a

    nd

    Ca2

    +

    Eac

    h io

    n is

    me

    asur

    ed

    in te

    rms

    of a

    n e

    qui

    vale

    nt (

    Eq)

    Eq

    uiv

    alen

    t (E

    q):

    the

    am

    oun

    t of i

    on

    eq

    ual t

    o 1

    mo

    le o

    f po

    sitiv

    e o

    r n

    eg

    ativ

    e

    ele

    ctri

    cal c

    har

    ge.

    Th

    e c

    on

    cen

    trat

    ion

    of e

    lect

    roly

    tes

    in IV

    ’s a

    re e

    xpre

    sse

    d in

    eq

    uiva

    lent

    s p

    er li

    ter

    (Eq

    /L)

    or

    mo

    re c

    om

    mo

    nly

    mill

    ieq

    uiva

    lent

    s p

    er li

    ter

    (mEq

    /L).

    1000

    mE

    q=

    1 E

    q

    In a

    ny s

    olu

    tio

    n, t

    he

    ch

    arg

    es

    of t

    he

    po

    sitiv

    e io

    ns

    is a

    lway

    s b

    alan

    ced

    by

    the

    ch

    arg

    e o

    f th

    en

    eg

    ativ

    eio

    ns.

    For

    exam

    ple

    ,aso

    luti

    on

    con

    tain

    ing

    25m

    Eq

    /Lo

    fNa+

    and

    4m

    Eq

    /Lo

    f K+

    has

    a

    tota

    l po

    sitiv

    e c

    har

    ge

    of 2

    9 m

    Eq

    /L.

    If C

    l-is

    the

    on

    ly n

    eg

    ativ

    e io

    n, i

    ts c

    on

    cen

    trat

    ion

    mus

    t be

    29

    mE

    q/L

    .

    Th

    e la

    b te

    sts

    for

    a p

    atie

    nt i

    nd

    icat

    e a

    blo

    od

    cal

    cium

    leve

    l of 8

    .8 m

    Eq

    /L.

    a. H

    ow m

    any

    mo

    les

    of c

    alci

    um i

    on

    s ar

    e in

    0.5

    0 L

    of b

    loo

    d?

    b.I

    f ch

    lori

    de

    ion

    isth

    eo

    nly

    oth

    er

    ion

    pre

    sen

    t,w

    hat

    isit

    sco

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    nin

    mE

    q/L

    ?

  • 9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    De

    fin

    e s

    olu

    bil

    ity;

    dis

    tin

    gui

    sh b

    etw

    ee

    n a

    n u

    nsa

    tura

    ted

    an

    d a

    sat

    urat

    ed

    so

    luti

    on

    . Id

    en

    tify

    an

    ion

    ic c

    om

    po

    und

    as

    solu

    ble

    or

    inso

    lub

    le.

    Th

    e te

    rm s

    olub

    ility

    isus

    ed

    tod

    esc

    rib

    e th

    e a

    mo

    unt o

    f so

    lute

    that

    can

    dis

    solv

    e in

    a

    giv

    en

    am

    oun

    t of s

    olv

    en

    t.

    Man

    yfa

    cto

    rsca

    naf

    fect

    the

    solu

    bil

    ity

    ofa

    solu

    te,s

    uch

    as:

    the

    typ

    eo

    fso

    lute

    th

    e ty

    pe

    ofs

    olv

    en

    t th

    e te

    mp

    era

    ture

    Solu

    bil

    ity:

    the

    max

    imum

    amo

    unto

    fso

    lute

    that

    can

    be

    dis

    solv

    ed

    ata

    cert

    ain

    te

    mp

    era

    ture

    .

    Usu

    ally

    exp

    ress

    ed

    as:

    If a

    so

    lute

    eas

    ily d

    isso

    lve

    d w

    he

    n a

    dd

    ed

    to a

    so

    lve

    nt,

    the

    so

    luti

    on

    do

    es

    no

    t co

    nta

    in th

    e

    max

    imum

    am

    oun

    t of s

    olu

    te y

    et.

    Th

    isis

    anu

    nsa

    tura

    ted

    solu

    tion

    .

    A s

    olu

    tio

    n th

    at c

    on

    tain

    s al

    l th

    e s

    olu

    te it

    can

    d

    isso

    lve

    is c

    alle

    d s

    atu

    rate

    d.

    Insp

    eci

    alca

    ses,

    aso

    luti

    on

    can

    be

    man

    ipul

    ate

    d to

    d

    isso

    lve

    mo

    re s

    olu

    te th

    an it

    sh

    oul

    d b

    e a

    ble

    to. T

    his

    is

    a s

    up

    ersa

    tura

    ted

    sol

    uti

    on.

  • In a

    sat

    urat

    ed

    so

    luti

    on

    , so

    lute

    wil

    lco

    nti

    nue

    tod

    isso

    lve.

    But

    for

    eve

    ryp

    arti

    cle

    that

    dis

    solv

    es,

    ano

    the

    rth

    atis

    alre

    ady

    dis

    solv

    ed

    wil

    lre

    crys

    tall

    ize

    (tur

    nb

    ack

    into

    iso

    rig

    inal

    stat

    e,th

    eo

    pp

    osi

    teo

    fdis

    solv

    e).

    So th

    ere

    isn

    oov

    era

    llch

    ang

    ein

    the

    amo

    unto

    fso

    lute

    dis

    solv

    ed

    inso

    luti

    on

    .

    Solu

    te +

    So

    lve

    nt

    S

    atur

    ate

    d S

    olu

    tio

    n

    For

    exam

    ple

    : ad

    din

    g s

    ugar

    to w

    ate

    r. If

    yo

    u ke

    ep

    ad

    din

    g s

    ugar

    , at s

    om

    e p

    oin

    t, n

    o

    mo

    re w

    ill d

    isso

    lve.

    It r

    em

    ain

    s a

    soli

    d. Y

    ou’

    ve s

    atur

    ate

    d th

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    solu

    ted

    isso

    lves

    solu

    tere

    crys

    tall

    izes

    At 2

    0°C

    , th

    e s

    olu

    bil

    ity

    of K

    Cli

    s 34

    g K

    Cl/

    100g

    H2O

    . In

    the

    lab

    , a s

    tud

    en

    t mix

    es

    75g

    of

    KC

    lwit

    h 2

    00g

    H2O

    at a

    tem

    pe

    ratu

    re a

    t 20°

    C.

    a.H

    ow m

    uch

    of t

    he

    KC

    lwil

    l dis

    solv

    e?

    b.

    Isth

    eso

    luti

    on

    satu

    rate

    do

    run

    satu

    rate

    d?

    c.H

    owm

    any

    gra

    ms

    ofs

    oli

    dK

    Clw

    illb

    ele

    ftun

    dis

    solv

    ed

    atth

    eb

    ott

    om

    oft

    he

    con

    tain

    er?

    Th

    e c

    on

    dit

    ion

    s o

    f go

    ut a

    nd

    kid

    ney

    sto

    ne

    s in

    volv

    e c

    om

    po

    und

    s in

    the

    bo

    dy

    that

    exc

    ee

    d th

    eir

    so

    lub

    ilit

    y le

    vels

    an

    d fo

    rm s

    oli

    d

    pro

    duc

    ts.

    Gou

    t(m

    en

    ,40+

    )–

    uric

    acid

    inth

    eb

    loo

    dex

    cee

    ds

    its

    solu

    bil

    ity

    7mg

    uric

    aci

    d p

    er

    100

    mL

    of p

    lasm

    a at

    bo

    dy

    tem

    pe

    ratu

    reSo

    lid

    uric

    acid

    inth

    efo

    rmo

    fne

    ed

    le-l

    ike

    cry

    stal

    s fo

    r in

    car

    tila

    ge,

    te

    nd

    on

    s, s

    oft

    tiss

    ues,

    kid

    ney

    s…

    Com

    mon

    caus

    es:K

    idn

    eyfa

    ilur

    e,d

    ieth

    igh

    inur

    icac

    id

    pre

    curs

    ors

    (m

    eat

    , sar

    din

    es,

    mus

    hro

    om

    s, a

    spar

    agus

    , an

    d

    be

    ans)

    , alc

    oh

    ol

    Trea

    tmen

    t:d

    ietc

    han

    ge

    s,m

    ed

    icat

    ion

    sth

    atb

    reak

    dow

    nur

    icac

    idan

    d/o

    r p

    reve

    nt u

    ric

    acid

    pro

    duc

    tio

    n

    Kid

    ney

    sto

    nes

    –so

    lid

    cry

    stal

    s fo

    rm in

    the

    uri

    nar

    y tr

    act o

    f cal

    cium

    ph

    osp

    hat

    e, c

    alci

    um o

    xala

    te, a

    nd

    /or

    som

    eti

    me

    s ur

    ic a

    cid

    that

    hav

    e e

    xce

    ed

    ed

    the

    ir

    solu

    bil

    itie

    s.

    caus

    es

    seve

    rep

    ain

    Tre

    atm

    ent:

    wai

    tito

    ut,u

    ltra

    soun

    d, i

    n e

    xtre

    me

    cas

    es

    surg

    ery

  • For

    mos

    t so

    lid

    s, s

    olu

    bil

    ity

    incr

    ease

    s as

    tem

    pe

    ratu

    re

    incr

    eas

    es.

    Wh

    ich

    me

    ans

    mo

    re s

    olu

    te w

    ill d

    isso

    lve

    at

    hig

    he

    r te

    mp

    era

    ture

    s.

    Exa

    mp

    le: m

    akin

    g c

    and

    y

    Afe

    wsu

    bst

    ance

    ssh

    owli

    ttle

    chan

    ge

    in s

    olu

    bil

    ity

    aste

    mp

    era

    ture

    rise

    s.

    For

    afe

    wg

    ase

    s,so

    lub

    ilit

    yd

    ecre

    ases

    aste

    mp

    era

    ture

    incr

    eas

    es.

    If y

    ou’

    ve e

    ver

    add

    ed

    sug

    ar to

    ice

    dte

    a,th

    en

    you

    kn

    owth

    at,

    in g

    en

    era

    l, n

    ot a

    ll th

    e s

    ugar

    dis

    solv

    es.

    So

    me

    of i

    t wil

    l ac

    cum

    ulat

    e a

    t th

    e b

    ott

    om

    of t

    he

    gla

    ssra

    the

    rth

    and

    isso

    lve

    into

    the

    tea.

    But

    if y

    ou

    add

    sug

    ar to

    ho

    t te

    a, m

    any

    teas

    po

    on

    s w

    ill d

    isso

    lve

    b

    efo

    re s

    oli

    d s

    ugar

    wil

    l sta

    rt to

    re

    mai

    n.

    Hot

    tea

    dis

    solv

    es m

    ore

    suga

    r th

    an c

    old

    tea

    bec

    ause

    the

    solu

    bili

    ty o

    f sug

    ar is

    muc

    h g

    reat

    er a

    t hig

    her

    tem

    per

    atur

    es.

    Aft

    er

    add

    ing

    sug

    arto

    the

    ho

    tte

    a,if

    you

    care

    fully

    leti

    tco

    ol,

    the

    sug

    ar w

    ill r

    em

    ain

    d

    isso

    lve

    d.

    Now

    the

    ice

    d te

    a h

    as m

    ore

    sug

    ar th

    an th

    e

    solu

    bil

    ity

    at c

    old

    er

    tem

    pe

    ratu

    res

    allo

    ws.

    It is

    su

    per

    satu

    rate

    d.

    Such

    a s

    olu

    tio

    n is

    un

    stab

    le, a

    nd

    if th

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n

    is d

    istu

    rbe

    d, t

    he

    exc

    ess

    so

    lute

    may

    re

    crys

    tall

    ize

    to th

    e s

    atur

    ate

    d s

    olu

    tio

    n le

    vel.

    Th

    e s

    olu

    bil

    ity

    of g

    ase

    s d

    ecre

    ases

    aste

    mp

    era

    ture

    sri

    se.T

    his

    isb

    eca

    use

    aste

    mp

    era

    ture

    s ri

    se, g

    as p

    arti

    cle

    s g

    ain

    mo

    re

    kin

    eti

    c e

    ne

    rgy

    and

    may

    esc

    ape

    the

    so

    luti

    on

    .

    Perh

    aps

    you’

    ve n

    oti

    ced

    mo

    re c

    arb

    on

    atio

    n

    leav

    ing

    a s

    od

    a as

    it w

    arm

    s.

    Ath

    igh

    tem

    pe

    ratu

    res,

    clo

    sed

    sod

    aca

    ns

    wil

    lb

    urst

    as

    mo

    re g

    as m

    ole

    cule

    s le

    ave

    the

    so

    luti

    on

    an

    d in

    cre

    ase

    the

    gas

    pre

    ssur

    e

    insi

    de.

    ore

    ut

    ion

    .

    ion

    sw

    ill

  • Bio

    log

    ists

    hav

    e fo

    und

    that

    in

    cre

    ase

    d te

    mp

    era

    ture

    in

    lake

    s an

    d r

    ive

    rs c

    ause

    s d

    isso

    lve

    d o

    xyg

    en

    to e

    scap

    e.

    If te

    mp

    era

    ture

    s ri

    se

    suff

    icie

    ntly

    , th

    ere

    isn

    ’t e

    no

    ugh

    oxy

    ge

    n le

    ft to

    su

    pp

    ort

    the

    bio

    log

    ical

    co

    mm

    unit

    ies.

    For

    this

    re

    aso

    n, p

    owe

    r p

    lan

    ts m

    ust m

    ake

    the

    ir o

    wn

    p

    on

    ds

    to u

    se w

    ith

    co

    oli

    ng

    to

    we

    rs s

    o th

    ey d

    on

    ’t w

    arm

    th

    e s

    urro

    und

    ing

    wat

    erw

    ays

    and

    kil

    l wil

    dli

    fe.

    Hen

    ry’s

    Law

    : th

    e s

    olu

    bil

    ity

    of a

    gas

    in

    a li

    qui

    d is

    dir

    ect

    ly r

    ela

    ted

    to th

    e

    pre

    ssur

    e o

    f th

    e a

    s ab

    ove

    or

    surr

    ound

    ing

    the

    liq

    uid

    .A

    s th

    e p

    ress

    ure

    out

    sid

    e o

    f th

    e

    liq

    uid

    incr

    eas

    es,

    the

    so

    lub

    ilit

    y o

    f th

    e g

    as in

    cre

    ase

    s

    Sod

    a is

    car

    bo

    nat

    ed

    by

    usin

    g C

    O2

    und

    er

    hig

    h p

    ress

    ure

    to

    incr

    eas

    es

    the

    so

    lub

    ilit

    y o

    f th

    e C

    O2

    in th

    e

    dri

    nk

    .

    Wh

    en

    yo

    u o

    pe

    n th

    e c

    an a

    t at

    mo

    sph

    eri

    c p

    ress

    ure,

    th

    e p

    ress

    ure

    in

    the

    can

    dro

    ps.

    Th

    is lo

    we

    rs th

    e

    solu

    bil

    ity

    of t

    he

    CO

    2in

    the

    dri

    nk

    an

    d d

    isso

    lve

    d C

    O2

    turn

    s b

    ack

    into

    a

    gas

    , cre

    atin

    g c

    arb

    on

    atio

    n.

    Up

    un

    til n

    ow, w

    e’v

    e a

    ssum

    ed

    all

    ion

    ic c

    om

    po

    und

    s d

    isso

    lve

    in w

    ate

    r. B

    ut th

    at’s

    no

    t en

    tire

    ly tr

    ue.

    Th

    eso

    lub

    ilit

    yru

    les

    giv

    eso

    me

    gui

    de

    lin

    es

    abo

    utio

    nic

    com

    po

    und

    sin

    wat

    er.

    Ion

    ic c

    om

    po

    und

    s th

    at a

    re s

    olu

    ble

    in w

    ate

    r ty

    pic

    ally

    co

    nta

    in a

    t le

    ast o

    ne

    of t

    he

    se io

    ns.

    Onl

    yan

    ioni

    cco

    mp

    ound

    cont

    aini

    nga

    solu

    ble

    catio

    nor

    anio

    nw

    illd

    isso

    lve

    inw

    ater

    .

    Mo

    st c

    om

    po

    und

    s co

    nta

    inin

    g C

    l-ar

    e s

    olu

    ble

    in w

    ate

    r. E

    xce

    pti

    on

    s:A

    gC

    l,P

    bC

    l 2, a

    nd

    Hg

    2Cl 2

    are

    inso

    lub

    le

    Mo

    stio

    nic

    com

    po

    und

    sco

    nta

    inin

    gSO

    42-ar

    eso

    lub

    lein

    wat

    er.

    Exc

    ep

    tio

    ns:

    BaS

    O4,

    Pb

    SO4,

    CaS

    O4,

    SrS

    O4

    or

    Hg

    2SO

    4ar

    e in

    solu

    ble

    Mo

    st o

    the

    r io

    nic

    co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    are

    inso

    lub

    le.

  • In a

    n in

    solu

    ble

    ion

    ic

    com

    po

    und

    s, th

    e s

    tre

    ng

    th o

    f th

    e io

    nic

    bo

    nd

    s ar

    e to

    o

    stro

    ng

    for

    the

    po

    lar

    wat

    er

    mo

    lecu

    les

    to b

    reak

    .

    Use

    the

    so

    lub

    ilit

    y ru

    les

    to p

    red

    ict w

    he

    ther

    the

    foll

    owin

    g io

    nic

    co

    mp

    oun

    ds

    are

    so

    lub

    le o

    r in

    solu

    ble

    in w

    ate

    r.

    K2S

    Ca(

    NO

    3)2

    Pb

    Cl 2

    NaO

    H

    AlP

    O4

    We

    can

    use

    so

    lub

    ilit

    y ru

    les

    to p

    red

    ict

    wh

    eth

    er a

    so

    lid

    , (ca

    lle

    d a

    pre

    cip

    itat

    e),

    fo

    rms

    wh

    en

    two

    so

    luti

    on

    s co

    nta

    inin

    g

    solu

    ble

    rea

    ctan

    ts a

    re m

    ixed

    Wh

    en

    so

    luti

    on

    s o

    f NaC

    lan

    d A

    gN

    O3

    are

    mix

    ed

    , a w

    hit

    e s

    oli

    d fo

    rms.

    Wri

    te th

    e io

    nic

    an

    d n

    et i

    on

    ic e

    qua

    tio

    n fo

    r th

    e r

    eac

    tio

    n.

  • Pre

    dic

    t wh

    eth

    er

    a so

    lid

    wo

    uld

    form

    . If s

    o, w

    rite

    the

    ne

    t io

    nic

    eq

    uati

    on

    .

    NH

    4Cl +

    Ca(

    NO

    3)2

    Pre

    dic

    t wh

    eth

    er

    a so

    lid

    wo

    uld

    form

    . If s

    o, w

    rite

    the

    ne

    t io

    nic

    eq

    uati

    on

    .

    Pb

    (NO

    3)2

    + K

    Cl

    9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    Cal

    cula

    te t

    he

    co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n o

    f a s

    olu

    te in

    a s

    olu

    tio

    n;

    use

    co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n u

    nit

    s to

    cal

    cula

    te th

    eam

    oun

    tofs

    olu

    teo

    rso

    luti

    on

    .G

    ive

    nth

    evo

    lum

    ean

    dco

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    no

    faso

    luti

    on

    ,cal

    cula

    te t

    he

    am

    oun

    t of

    ano

    the

    r re

    acta

    nt o

    r p

    rod

    uct i

    n a

    re

    acti

    on

    .

  • Th

    e a

    mo

    unt o

    f so

    lute

    dis

    solv

    ed

    in a

    ce

    rtai

    n a

    mo

    unt o

    f so

    luti

    on

    is c

    alle

    d th

    e

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    of t

    he

    so

    luti

    on

    .T

    his

    sect

    ion

    loo

    ks

    atd

    iffe

    ren

    tway

    sto

    exp

    ress

    aco

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    nas

    ara

    tio

    no

    fso

    lute

    and

    solu

    tio

    n.

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    =amoun

    tofsolute

    Am

    oun

    t of s

    olu

    te c

    an b

    e g

    , mL,

    or

    mo

    les

    Am

    oun

    t of s

    olu

    tio

    n c

    an b

    e g

    , mL,

    or

    L

    Mas

    sp

    erce

    nt:

    de

    scri

    be

    sth

    em

    ass

    oft

    he

    solu

    tein

    gra

    ms

    for

    exac

    tly10

    0go

    fso

    luti

    on

    .

    masspercent

    =massofso

    lute(g)masso

    fsolution(g)

    x100T

    he

    unit

    so

    fmas

    sfo

    rso

    lute

    and

    solu

    tio

    nm

    ust t

    he

    sam

    e. (

    kg

    wo

    uld

    be

    fin

    e, a

    s lo

    ng

    as

    they

    are

    BO

    TH

    in k

    g.)

    Th

    em

    ass

    ofs

    olu

    tio

    n=

    mas

    so

    fso

    lute

    +m

    ass

    ofs

    olv

    en

    t

    Wh

    atis

    the

    mas

    sp

    erc

    en

    tify

    ou

    pre

    par

    e a

    solu

    tio

    nb

    ym

    ixin

    g 8

    .00g

    KC

    l(so

    lute

    ) w

    ith

    42

    .00g

    of w

    ate

    r (s

    olv

    en

    t)?

    Wh

    at is

    the

    mas

    s p

    erc

    en

    t of N

    aOH

    in a

    so

    luti

    on

    pre

    par

    ed

    by

    dis

    solv

    ing

    30.

    0g o

    f N

    aOH

    in 1

    20.0

    g o

    f wat

    er?

  • Be

    caus

    e th

    e v

    olu

    me

    of l

    iqui

    ds

    are

    eas

    ily m

    eas

    ure

    d, t

    he

    co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    of s

    olu

    tio

    ns

    are

    oft

    en

    exp

    ress

    ed

    as

    volu

    me

    pe

    rce

    nt (

    v/v)

    .

    Volu

    me

    per

    cen

    t:th

    e v

    olu

    me

    of s

    olu

    te in

    exa

    ctly

    100m

    L o

    f so

    luti

    on

    .

    volumepercen

    t=volume

    ofsolute(mL

    )volume

    ofsolution(m

    L)x100

    Th

    e u

    nit

    sm

    ustb

    eth

    esa

    me

    for

    bo

    th.E

    ith

    er

    mL

    or

    Lus

    ually

    Vo

    lum

    e o

    f so

    luti

    on

    = v

    olu

    me

    of s

    olu

    te +

    vo

    lum

    e o

    f so

    luti

    on

    The

    lab

    el i

    ndic

    ate

    s th

    at

    van

    illa

    ext

    ract

    co

    nta

    ins

    35%

    (v/

    v) a

    lco

    ho

    l.

    35m

    L of

    eth

    anol

    in e

    very

    10

    0 m

    L va

    nil

    la s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    A b

    ott

    le c

    on

    tain

    s 59

    mL

    of l

    em

    on

    ext

    ract

    so

    luti

    on

    . If t

    he

    ext

    ract

    co

    nta

    ins

    49 m

    L o

    f al

    coh

    ol,

    wh

    at is

    the

    vo

    lum

    e p

    erc

    en

    t (v/

    v) o

    f th

    e a

    lco

    ho

    l in

    the

    so

    luti

    on

    ?

    Mas

    s/vo

    lum

    e p

    erce

    nt (

    m/v

    ):d

    esc

    rib

    es

    the

    mas

    s o

    f the

    so

    lute

    in

    gra

    ms

    for

    exac

    tly

    100m

    Lo

    f sol

    utio

    n.

    solu

    teun

    its:

    gso

    luti

    on

    un

    its:

    mL

    mass/volume

    percent=

    massofsolute

    (g)volume

    ofsolution(m

    L)x100

  • Th

    e m

    ass/

    volu

    me

    pe

    rce

    nt i

    s w

    ide

    ly u

    sed

    in

    ho

    spit

    als

    and

    ph

    arm

    acie

    s to

    pre

    par

    e

    intr

    ave

    no

    us (

    IV)

    solu

    tio

    ns

    and

    med

    icin

    es.

    For

    exam

    ple

    ,a5%

    (m/v

    ) g

    luco

    se s

    olu

    tio

    n

    con

    tain

    s 5g

    of g

    luco

    se in

    100

    mL

    of s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Th

    e v

    olum

    e o

    f so

    luti

    on

    rep

    rese

    nts

    the

    co

    mb

    ine

    d v

    olum

    es

    of t

    he

    glu

    cose

    and

    wat

    er.

    A p

    ota

    ssiu

    m io

    did

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n m

    ay b

    e u

    sed

    in a

    die

    t th

    at is

    low

    in io

    din

    e.

    A K

    I so

    luti

    on

    is p

    rep

    are

    d b

    y d

    isso

    lvin

    g 5

    .0g

    of K

    I in

    en

    oug

    h w

    ate

    r to

    g

    ive

    a fi

    nal

    vo

    lum

    e o

    f 250

    mL.

    Wh

    at is

    the

    mas

    s/vo

    lum

    e p

    erc

    en

    t (m

    /v)

    of t

    he

    KI s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Th

    e m

    ost

    co

    mm

    on

    typ

    e o

    f co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n th

    at c

    he

    mis

    ts u

    se is

    mol

    arit

    y: t

    he

    num

    be

    r o

    f mo

    les

    of s

    olu

    te in

    exa

    ctly

    1L

    of s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Molarity(M)

    =molesof

    solutevolume

    ofsolution(L

    )W

    hat

    isth

    em

    ola

    rity

    of1

    .0m

    ole

    so

    fNaC

    ldis

    solv

    ed

    in e

    no

    ugh

    wat

    er

    to

    mak

    e 2

    .0L

    of s

    olu

    tio

    n?

  • Wh

    at is

    the

    mo

    lari

    ty (

    M)

    of 6

    0.0g

    NaO

    Hin

    0.2

    50L

    of s

    olu

    tio

    n?

    In th

    e p

    rep

    arat

    ion

    of s

    olu

    tio

    n, w

    e o

    fte

    n n

    ee

    d to

    cal

    cula

    te t

    he

    am

    oun

    t of s

    olu

    te o

    r so

    luti

    on

    . If t

    he

    co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n is

    kn

    own

    , it i

    s us

    efu

    l to

    use

    as

    a co

    nve

    rsio

    n f

    acto

    r. A

    top

    ical

    an

    tib

    ioti

    c is

    1.0

    % (

    m/v

    ) cl

    ind

    amyc

    in. H

    ow m

    any

    gra

    ms

    of c

    lin

    dam

    ycin

    are

    in

    60

    mL

    of t

    he

    so

    luti

    on

    ?

  • How

    man

    y li

    ters

    of a

    2.0

    0M N

    aCls

    olu

    tio

    n a

    re n

    ee

    de

    d to

    pro

    vid

    e 6

    7.3g

    of N

    aCl?

    Wh

    en

    ch

    em

    ical

    re

    acti

    on

    s in

    volv

    e a

    que

    ous

    so

    luti

    on

    s, w

    e u

    se

    the

    bal

    ance

    dch

    em

    ical

    eq

    uati

    on

    the

    mo

    lari

    ty

    the

    vo

    lum

    e

    go

    de

    term

    ine

    the

    mo

    les

    or

    gra

    ms

    oft

    he

    reac

    tan

    tso

    rp

    rod

    ucts

    .

    Zin

    c re

    acts

    wit

    h H

    Clt

    o p

    rod

    uce

    hyd

    rog

    en

    gas

    , H2,

    and

    Zn

    Cl 2

    .

    Zn(s

    )+

    2HC

    l(aq

    ) H

    2(g

    ) +

    Zn

    Cl 2

    (aq

    )

    How

    man

    yli

    ters

    ofa

    1.50

    M H

    Cls

    olu

    tio

    n c

    om

    ple

    tely

    re

    act w

    ith

    5.3

    2g o

    f zin

    c?

    How

    man

    y m

    L o

    f a 0

    .250

    M B

    aCl 2

    solu

    tio

    n a

    re n

    ee

    de

    d to

    re

    act w

    ith

    0.0

    325L

    of a

    0.

    160M

    Na 2

    SO4

    solu

    tio

    n?

    Na 2

    SO4(

    aq)

    +B

    aCl 2

    (aq

    )B

    aSO

    4(s)

    +2N

    aCl(

    aq)

  • 9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    De

    scri

    be

    the

    dil

    utio

    n o

    f a s

    olu

    tio

    n; c

    alcu

    late

    the

    un

    kn

    own

    co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n o

    r vo

    lum

    e w

    he

    n a

    so

    luti

    on

    is d

    ilut

    ed

    .

    In c

    he

    mis

    try

    and

    bio

    log

    y, w

    e o

    fte

    n p

    rep

    are

    d

    ilut

    ed

    so

    luti

    on

    s fr

    om

    mo

    reco

    nce

    ntr

    ate

    do

    ne

    s.

    In a

    pro

    cess

    cal

    led

    dil

    uti

    on, a

    so

    lve

    nt (

    usua

    lly

    wat

    er)

    is a

    dd

    ed

    to a

    so

    luti

    on

    , whi

    ch in

    cre

    ase

    s th

    e v

    olum

    e.

    As

    are

    sult

    ,the

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    oft

    heso

    luti

    on

    de

    cre

    ase

    s.

  • For

    exam

    ple

    , wh

    en

    yo

    u m

    ake

    juic

    e fr

    om

    fro

    zen

    co

    nce

    ntr

    ate,

    yo

    u ad

    d 3

    can

    s o

    f wat

    er

    to d

    ilut

    e th

    e o

    ran

    ge

    juic

    e (

    solu

    te).

    Th

    e a

    mo

    unt o

    f so

    lute

    do

    esn

    ’t ch

    ang

    e. I

    t is

    just

    sp

    read

    out

    ove

    r a

    larg

    er

    volu

    me.

    C1V

    1=

    C2V

    2

    C –

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    (p

    erc

    en

    t co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n o

    r m

    ola

    rity

    )V

    -vo

    lum

    e

    A d

    oct

    or

    ord

    ers

    100

    0mL

    of a

    35.

    0% (

    m/v

    ) d

    extr

    ose

    so

    luti

    on

    .

    If y

    ou

    hav

    e a

    50.

    0% (

    m/v

    ) d

    extr

    ose

    so

    luti

    on

    , how

    man

    y m

    L w

    oul

    d y

    ou

    use

    to p

    rep

    are

    10

    00m

    L o

    f 35.

    0% (

    m/v

    ) d

    extr

    ose

    so

    luti

    on

    ?

    Wh

    atis

    the

    mo

    lari

    tyo

    faso

    luti

    on

    wh

    en

    75.0

    mL

    ofa

    4.00

    M K

    Cls

    olu

    tio

    n is

    dil

    ute

    d to

    a

    volu

    me

    of 5

    00m

    L?

  • 9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9

    Ide

    nti

    fy a

    mix

    ture

    as

    a so

    luti

    on

    , a c

    oll

    oid

    , or

    a su

    spe

    nsi

    on

    . De

    scri

    be

    how

    the

    n

    umb

    er

    of p

    arti

    cle

    s in

    a s

    olu

    tio

    n a

    ffe

    cts

    the

    fre

    ezi

    ng

    po

    int,

    the

    bo

    ilin

    g p

    oin

    t, an

    d th

    e o

    smo

    tic

    pre

    ssur

    e o

    f a s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Th

    e s

    ize

    an

    d n

    umb

    er

    of s

    olu

    te p

    arti

    cle

    s in

    d

    iffe

    ren

    t typ

    es

    of m

    ixtu

    res

    pla

    y an

    imp

    ort

    ant r

    ole

    in

    de

    term

    inin

    g th

    e p

    rop

    ert

    ies

    of t

    ho

    se m

    ixtu

    res.

    In s

    olu

    tion

    s, t

    he

    so

    lute

    is d

    isso

    lve

    d a

    s sm

    all p

    arti

    cle

    s th

    at

    are

    un

    ifo

    rmly

    dis

    pe

    rse

    d th

    roug

    ho

    ut th

    e s

    olv

    en

    t to

    giv

    e a

    h

    om

    og

    en

    eo

    us s

    olu

    tio

    n.

    Wh

    en

    you

    loo

    k a

    t a s

    olu

    tio

    n, s

    uch

    as

    salt

    wat

    er,

    you

    can

    no

    t vi

    sual

    ly d

    isti

    ng

    uish

    the

    so

    lute

    fro

    mth

    eso

    lve

    nt.

    Th

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n a

    pp

    ear

    s tr

    ansp

    are

    nt,

    alth

    oug

    h it

    may

    hav

    e a

    co

    lor.

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    ep

    arti

    cle

    sar

    eso

    smal

    lth

    atth

    eyw

    illp

    ass

    thro

    ugh

    filt

    ers

    and

    sem

    ipe

    rme

    able

    me

    mb

    ran

    es.

    Sem

    ipe

    rme

    able

    me

    mb

    ran

    es

    allo

    w s

    olv

    en

    t mo

    lecu

    les

    such

    as

    wat

    er

    and

    ve

    ry s

    mal

    l par

    ticl

    es

    to p

    ass

    thro

    ugh

    , but

    no

    t lar

    ge

    p

    arti

    cle

    s.

  • Th

    e p

    arti

    cle

    s in

    a c

    ollo

    idar

    e m

    uch

    larg

    er

    than

    so

    lute

    par

    ticl

    es

    in a

    so

    luti

    on

    .

    Co

    llo

    idal

    par

    ticl

    es

    are

    larg

    em

    ole

    cule

    s,su

    chas

    pro

    tein

    s,o

    rg

    roup

    so

    fmo

    lecu

    les

    or

    ion

    s.

    Co

    llo

    idal

    par

    ticl

    es,

    sim

    ilar

    to s

    olu

    tio

    ns,

    are

    h

    om

    og

    en

    eo

    us m

    ixtu

    res

    that

    do

    no

    t se

    par

    ate

    or

    sett

    le. O

    ut.

    Co

    llo

    idal

    par

    ticl

    es

    are

    sm

    all e

    no

    ugh

    to p

    ass

    thro

    ugh

    filt

    ers

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    too

    larg

    e fo

    r se

    mip

    erm

    eab

    le

    me

    mb

    ran

    es.

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    llo

    ids

    the

    solu

    teis

    n’t

    ne

    cess

    arily

    the

    sam

    est

    ate

    asth

    eso

    lve

    nt.

    Susp

    ensi

    ons:

    he

    tero

    ge

    ne

    ous

    , no

    nun

    ifo

    rm m

    ixtu

    res

    that

    are

    ve

    ry

    dif

    fere

    nt f

    rom

    so

    luti

    on

    s to

    co

    llo

    ids.

    Th

    ep

    arti

    cle

    so

    fa s

    usp

    en

    sio

    n a

    re s

    o la

    rge

    that

    they

    can

    oft

    en

    be

    se

    en

    w

    ith

    the

    nak

    ed

    eye

    .

    Th

    eyca

    nn

    otp

    ass

    thro

    ugh

    filt

    ers

    no

    rse

    mip

    erm

    eab

    lem

    em

    bra

    ne

    s.

    Th

    ew

    eig

    hto

    fth

    esu

    spe

    nd

    ed

    solu

    tep

    arti

    cle

    sca

    use

    sth

    em

    tose

    ttle

    out

    soo

    naf

    ter

    mix

    ing

    If y

    ou

    stir

    mud

    dy

    wat

    er,

    it m

    ixe

    sth

    en

    qui

    ckly

    sep

    arat

    es

    asth

    e s

    usp

    en

    de

    d d

    irt

    par

    ticl

    es

    sett

    leto

    the

    bo

    tto

    man

    d le

    ave

    cle

    ar w

    ate

    r o

    n to

    p.

    Wat

    er-

    tre

    atm

    en

    t pla

    nts

    mak

    e u

    se o

    f th

    e p

    rop

    ert

    ies

    of s

    usp

    en

    sio

    ns

    to p

    urif

    y w

    ate

    r. W

    he

    n c

    he

    mic

    als

    such

    as

    alum

    inum

    sul

    fate

    or

    iro

    n (

    III)

    sul

    fate

    are

    ad

    de

    d to

    un

    tre

    ate

    d w

    ate

    r, th

    ey r

    eac

    t wit

    h im

    pur

    itie

    s to

    form

    larg

    e s

    usp

    en

    de

    d p

    arti

    cle

    s ca

    lle

    d fl

    oc. F

    ilte

    rsth

    en

    trap

    the

    par

    ticl

    es

    and

    allo

    wth

    ecl

    ean

    wat

    er

    top

    ass

    thro

    ugh

    .

  • Wh

    en

    we

    ad

    d a

    so

    lute

    to w

    ate

    r, it

    ch

    ang

    es

    seve

    ral p

    rop

    ert

    ies

    of t

    he

    wat

    er:

    Vap

    or

    pre

    ssur

    eB

    oil

    ing

    po

    int

    Fre

    ezi

    ng

    po

    int

    Th

    ese

    ch

    ang

    es

    de

    pe

    nd

    on

    ly o

    n h

    ow m

    any

    solu

    te p

    arti

    cle

    sar

    ead

    de

    dan

    dd

    ep

    en

    dn

    oth

    ing

    on

    wh

    atsp

    eci

    fic

    com

    po

    und

    itis

    .

    Vap

    or p

    ress

    ure

    :T

    he

    pre

    ssur

    e e

    xert

    ed

    by

    the

    p

    arti

    cle

    s o

    f vap

    or

    abov

    e a

    liq

    uid

    .

    In o

    rde

    r fo

    r ev

    apo

    rati

    on

    (an

    d th

    us v

    apo

    r p

    ress

    ure

    ) to

    o

    ccur

    , mo

    lecu

    les

    mus

    tbe

    very

    ne

    arth

    eli

    qui

    d’s

    su

    rfac

    e.

    Ifa

    no

    nvo

    lati

    le(l

    owva

    po

    rp

    ress

    ure

    )so

    lute

    isad

    de

    d,

    solu

    tem

    ole

    cule

    sb

    lock

    asm

    any

    solv

    en

    t mo

    lecu

    les

    fro

    m b

    ein

    g n

    ear

    the

    sur

    face

    . Cau

    sin

    g a

    low

    erva

    po

    r p

    ress

    ure.

    As

    mo

    reso

    lute

    isad

    de

    d,m

    ore

    par

    ticl

    es

    com

    pe

    tefo

    rth

    esu

    rfac

    e,an

    dth

    elo

    we

    rp

    ress

    ure

    be

    com

    es

    low

    er.

    Th

    e b

    oil

    ing

    po

    int o

    f a s

    olv

    en

    t is

    rais

    ed

    wh

    en

    a

    no

    nvo

    lati

    le s

    olu

    te is

    ad

    de

    d.

    Re

    call

    : to

    bo

    il, t

    he

    vap

    or

    pre

    ssur

    e m

    ust r

    eac

    h

    atm

    osp

    he

    ric

    pre

    ssur

    e. If

    the

    vap

    or

    pre

    ssur

    e is

    low

    er

    to

    be

    gin

    wit

    h, i

    t wil

    l tak

    e m

    ore

    he

    at to

    incr

    eas

    e th

    e

    pre

    ssur

    e to

    atm

    osp

    he

    ric

    pre

    ssur

    e.

  • Th

    e fr

    ee

    zin

    g p

    oin

    t of a

    so

    lve

    nt i

    s lo

    we

    red

    w

    he

    n a

    no

    nvo

    lati

    le s

    olv

    en

    tis

    ad

    de

    d.

    Re

    call

    :wh

    en

    asu

    bst

    ance

    fre

    eze

    s,th

    em

    ole

    cule

    s st

    ruct

    ure

    the

    mse

    lve

    s ve

    ry

    org

    aniz

    ed

    .

    Wh

    en

    solu

    teis

    add

    ed

    ,itp

    reve

    nts

    the

    solv

    en

    tmo

    lecu

    les

    fro

    mb

    eco

    min

    g

    org

    aniz

    ed

    .So

    alo

    we

    rte

    mp

    era

    ture

    isre

    qui

    red

    tofo

    rce

    the

    org

    aniz

    atio

    n.

    Osm

    osis

    : wat

    er m

    olec

    ules

    mov

    e th

    roug

    h a

    se

    mip

    erm

    eab

    le m

    em

    bra

    ne

    fro

    m th

    e s

    olu

    tio

    n

    wit

    h th

    e l

    ower

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    of s

    olu

    te in

    to a

    so

    luti

    on

    wit

    h th

    e h

    igh

    er c

    once

    ntr

    atio

    no

    f so

    lute

    . T

    his

    dil

    ute

    sth

    em

    ore

    con

    cen

    trat

    ed

    sid

    ew

    ith

    the

    eve

    ntu

    alre

    sult

    ofb

    oth

    solu

    tio

    ns

    hav

    ing

    the

    sam

    eco

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    n.

    On

    lyso

    lven

    tm

    olec

    ule

    sm

    ove

    thro

    ugh

    the

    m

    em

    bra

    ne.

    No

    t so

    lute

    .

    Rev

    erse

    osm

    osis

    : ap

    ply

    ing

    pre

    ssur

    e to

    forc

    e

    wat

    er

    to m

    ove

    fro

    m h

    igh

    er t

    o lo

    wer

    con

    cen

    trat

    ion

    .R

    em

    ove

    s im

    pur

    itie

    s.

    9.1

    –So

    luti

    on

    s

    9.2

    –E

    lect

    roly

    tes

    and

    No

    ne

    lect

    roly

    tes

    9.3

    –So

    lub

    ilit

    y

    9.4

    –So

    luti

    on

    Co

    nce

    ntr

    atio

    ns

    and

    Re

    acti

    on

    s

    9.5

    –D

    ilut

    ion

    of S

    olu

    tio

    ns

    9.6

    –P

    rop

    ert

    ies

    ofS

    olu

    tio

    ns

    Ch

    apte

    r 9