Upload
others
View
5
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Ch
apte
r 9
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
Ide
nti
fyth
eso
lute
and
solv
ent
ina
solu
tio
n.
De
scri
be
the
form
atio
no
faso
luti
on
.
A s
olu
tion
is a
ho
mo
ge
ne
ous
m
ixtu
re in
whi
ch o
ne
sub
stan
ce, c
alle
d th
e s
olu
te,
is u
nif
orm
ly d
isp
ers
ed
(d
isso
lve
d)
in a
noth
er
sub
stan
ce, c
alle
d th
e
solv
ent.
Rev
iew
: a h
omog
enou
s m
ixtu
re is
a c
om
bin
atio
n o
f 2+
sub
stan
ces
that
are
un
ifo
rm th
roug
ho
ut. V
isua
lly, i
t ap
pe
ars
as c
om
po
sed
of o
ne
su
bst
ance
. Exa
mp
le: m
ilk
Th
e s
olu
te a
nd
so
lve
nt d
o n
ot r
eact
wit
h
eac
h o
ther
an
d s
o th
ey c
an b
e m
ixed
in
vary
ing
pro
por
tion
s.
Salt
wat
er
is a
so
luti
on
Solv
en
t = w
ate
r (p
rese
nt in
larg
er
amo
unt)
Solu
te=
salt
(sm
alle
r am
oun
t)
Dif
fere
nta
mo
unto
fsal
tcan
be
dis
solv
ed
inw
ate
r.
Aso
luti
on
has
at l
eas
t on
e s
olu
te
dis
pe
rse
d in
a s
olv
en
t, an
d c
an h
ave
mo
re.
Solu
tes
and
so
lve
nts
may
be
so
lid
s, li
qui
ds,
or
gas
es.
Th
e s
olu
tio
n th
at fo
rms
has
the
sam
e p
hysi
cal s
tate
as
the
sol
vent
.
Exa
mp
le:w
he
nsu
gar
crys
tals
dis
solv
e in
wat
er,
the
resu
ltin
gso
luti
on
isa
liq
uid
.Su
gar
–so
lute
(s)
Wat
er
–so
lve
nt(
l)
Exa
mp
le: S
oft
dri
nks
are
car
bo
nat
ed
by
dis
solv
ing
C
O2
in w
ate
r an
d is
a li
qui
d.
CO
2–
solu
te(g
)W
ate
r –
solv
en
t (l)
Wat
er
is o
ne
of t
he m
ost
co
mm
on
so
lve
nts
in
nat
ure,
than
ks
to it
s st
ruct
ure
an
d p
rop
ert
ies:
Wat
er
isp
ola
r.
Wat
er
can
hyd
rog
en
bon
d.
Th
e s
har
ed
ele
ctro
ns
in e
ach
of t
he
O-H
bo
nd
s in
wat
er
are
he
ld
tig
hte
r to
Oxy
ge
n th
an to
Hyd
rog
en
. T
his
isb
eca
use
Oxy
ge
nis
mo
ree
lect
ron
eg
ativ
eth
anH
ydro
ge
n.
Th
us,t
he
O-H
bo
nd
sar
ep
olar
.
Be
caus
e th
e s
hap
e o
f a w
ate
r m
olec
ule
is b
en
t, it
s d
ipo
le d
on
’t ca
nce
l out
. T
hus
the
en
tire
mo
lecu
le is
pol
aran
d w
ate
r is
sai
dto
be
a p
olar
sol
ven
t.
Hyd
rog
en b
ond
s: th
e a
ttra
ctio
n b
etw
ee
n a
par
tial
ly p
osi
tive
H a
tom
an
d a
st
ron
gly
ele
ctro
ne
gat
ive
ato
m o
f F, O
, or
N.
Wat
er
mo
lecu
les
are
lin
ked
tog
eth
er
via
hyd
rog
en
bon
ds.
Hyd
rog
en
bo
nds
are
imp
ort
anti
nth
ep
rop
ert
ies
ofb
iolo
gic
alco
mp
oun
ds
such
as
pro
tein
s, c
arb
ohy
dra
tes,
an
d D
NA
.
Th
e a
vera
ge
ad
ult i
s ab
out
60%
wat
er
by
mas
s ad
the
ave
rag
e in
fant
is a
bo
ut 7
5%
wat
er.
Ab
out
60%
oft
he
bo
dy’
sw
ate
ris
con
tain
ed
wit
hin
the
cell
s.T
he
oth
er
40%
mak
es u
p
extr
ace
llul
ar fl
uid
s, w
hich
incl
ude
the
in
ters
titi
al fl
uid
in ti
ssue
an
d th
e p
lasm
a in
th
e b
lood
.
Eve
ryd
ay y
ou lo
se b
etw
ee
n 1
500-
3000
mL
of w
ate
r.
Seri
ous
de
hyd
rati
on c
an o
ccur
in a
n a
dul
t if t
here
is
a 10
% n
et l
oss
in to
tal b
od
y fl
uid
; a 2
0% lo
ss o
f flu
id
can
be
fata
l.
An
infa
nt s
uffe
rsse
vere
de
hyd
rati
on
wit
h o
nly
5-10
% lo
ss in
bo
dy
flui
d.
Wat
er
loss
isco
ntin
ually
rep
lace
db
yth
eli
qui
ds
and
fo
od
s in
the
die
t an
d fr
om
me
tab
oli
c p
roce
sse
s th
at
pro
duc
e w
ate
r in
the
cel
ls in
the
bo
dy.
No
t all
co
mb
inat
ion
s o
f so
lute
an
d s
olv
en
t re
sult
in a
so
luti
on
.
Ste
ps
tofo
rmin
g a
so
luti
on
:1.
Bre
ak s
olu
te-s
olu
te a
nd
so
lve
nt-
solv
en
t at
trac
tio
ns
(ene
rgy
req
uire
d)
2.Fo
rmso
lute
-so
lve
nt a
ttra
ctio
ns
(ene
rgy
rele
ased
)
Oil
an
d w
ate
r h
ave
dif
fere
nt
po
lari
tie
s, s
o th
ey w
ill n
ot
form
a s
olu
tio
n.
Ste
ps
to fo
rmin
g a
so
luti
on
:1.
Bre
ak s
olu
te-s
olu
te a
nd
so
lve
nt-
solv
en
t at
trac
tion
s (e
nerg
y re
qui
red)
2.
For
m s
olu
te-s
olv
en
t at
trac
tion
s (e
nerg
y re
leas
ed)
In o
rder
to p
rovi
de
the
en
erg
y fo
r St
ep
1 to
occ
ur, t
he
so
lute
an
d s
olv
en
t par
ticl
es
mus
t be
att
ract
ed
to e
ach
othe
r.
Thi
s o
ccur
s w
he
n th
e s
olu
te a
nd
so
lve
nt h
ave
sim
ilar
p
olar
ities
.
LIK
E d
isso
lve
s LI
KE
Pol
ar s
olu
tes
dis
solv
e in
Pol
ar s
olve
nts
Non
pol
arso
lute
sd
isso
lve
inN
onp
olar
solv
ents
.
Pola
r
No
np
ola
r
Wat
er
DM
SOE
than
ol
Ace
ton
e
Oil
Gre
ase
Be
nze
ne
Hex
ane
Top
laye
r: w
ate
r (p
ola
r)B
ott
om
laye
r: m
eth
yle
ne
ch
lori
de,
CH
2Cl 2
(no
np
ola
r)
Ion
ic c
omp
oun
ds
wil
l d
isso
lve
in p
olar
sol
ven
ts.
Wh
en
NaC
lcry
stal
s ar
e p
lace
d in
wat
er,
par
tial
ly
ne
gat
ive
oxy
ge
n a
tom
s in
the
wat
er
mo
lecu
les
attr
act
the
po
sitiv
e N
a+io
ns.
Th
e p
arti
ally
po
sitiv
e h
ydro
ge
n
ato
ms
in o
the
r w
ate
r m
ole
cule
s at
trac
t ne
gat
ive
Cl-
ion
s.
Luri
ng
ind
ivid
ual
ion
s aw
ay fr
om
the
cry
stal
.
As
soo
n a
s a
wat
er
mo
lecu
les
lure
s a
Na+
or
Cl-
off
on
its
own
, oth
er
wat
er
mo
lecu
les
wil
l sur
roun
d it
, hyd
rati
ng
it.
Hyd
rati
on
oft
he
ion
sd
imin
ish
es
the
irat
trac
tio
n to
oth
er
ion
s an
d k
ee
ps
the
n in
so
luti
on
.
NaC
l(s)
N
a+(a
q)
+C
l- (aq
)H
2O
Co
mp
oun
ds
con
tain
ing
no
np
ola
r m
ole
cule
s, s
uch
as
iod
ine
(I
2), o
il, o
r g
reas
e, d
o n
ot d
isso
lve
in w
ate
r b
eca
use
the
re
are
ess
en
tial
ly n
o a
ttra
ctio
ns
be
twe
en
the
par
ticl
es
of a
n
on
po
lar
solu
te a
nd
the
po
lar
solv
en
t.
No
np
ola
r so
lute
s re
qui
re n
on
po
lar
solv
en
ts fo
ra
solu
tio
n to
fo
rm.
Lik
e d
isso
lves
Lik
e
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
Ide
nti
fy s
olu
tes
as e
lect
roly
tes
or
no
ne
lect
roly
tes.
Solu
tes
can
be
cla
ssif
ied
by
the
ir a
bil
ity
to c
on
duc
t an
ele
ctri
cal c
urre
nt.
Som
e c
om
po
und
s d
isso
ciat
ein
toio
ns
wh
en
put
into
solu
tio
n:
AB
(s,l
, or
g)
A+
(aq
) +
B- (
aq)
Ion
s co
nd
uct e
lect
rici
ty.
Ele
ctro
lyte
s: c
om
po
und
s th
at d
isso
ciat
e in
to io
ns
and
co
nd
uct e
lect
rici
ty.
Non
elec
trol
ytes
:co
mp
oun
ds
that
do
notd
isso
ciat
e i
nto
ion
s an
d th
ere
fore
do
not
con
duc
t ele
ctri
city
.
solv
en
t
Ele
ctro
lyte
s ca
n b
e fu
rth
er
clas
sifi
ed
as
stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
s o
rw
eak
ele
ctro
lyte
s.
Stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
sfo
rm fr
om
co
mp
oun
ds
dis
soci
atin
g c
om
ple
tely
into
po
sitiv
e a
nd
n
eg
ativ
e io
ns
wh
en
ad
de
d to
so
luti
on
:
NaC
l(s)
Na+
(aq
)+
Cl- (
aq)
Stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
s co
nd
uct e
lect
rici
ty v
ery
we
ll. (
Th
e li
gh
tbul
b w
oul
d h
ave
a b
rig
ht g
low
.)
Co
mp
oun
ds
that
do
this
incl
ude
: all
so
lub
le io
nic
co
mp
oun
ds,
ce
rtai
n m
ole
cula
r co
mp
oun
ds
(str
on
g a
cid
s an
d b
ase
s. M
ore
to c
om
e in
ch
apte
r 11
.)
H2O
Ele
ctro
lyte
s ca
n b
e fu
rth
er
clas
sifi
ed
as
stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
s o
rw
eak
ele
ctro
lyte
s.
Wea
kel
ectr
olyt
esfo
rm fr
om
co
mp
oun
ds
that
on
ly p
arti
ally
dis
soci
ate
into
po
sitiv
e
and
ne
gat
ive
ion
s w
he
n a
dd
ed
to s
olu
tio
n:
HF (
aq)
H
+(a
q)
+F-
(aq
)
We
ak e
lect
roly
tes
con
duc
t ele
ctri
city
, but
no
t as
stro
ng
as
stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
s. T
his
is
due
to fe
w io
ns
(as
mo
st o
f th
e H
F is
in th
e fo
rm o
f th
e m
ole
cule
an
d n
ot t
he
ion
s.)
Th
e li
gh
tbul
b w
ill b
e d
im.
Co
mp
oun
ds
that
wil
l do
this
are
ce
rtai
n m
ole
cula
r co
mp
oun
ds
(we
ak a
cid
s an
d
bas
es
–to
co
me
in c
hap
ter
11).
Mo
st m
ole
cula
r co
mp
oun
ds
do
notd
isso
ciat
e in
to io
ns
but
re
mai
n 1
00%
mo
lecu
les.
T
he
se d
o n
ot c
on
duc
t ele
ctri
city
due
to la
ck o
f io
ns
and
are
the
refo
re
non
elec
trol
ytes
. CH
3OH
(l)
CH
3OH
(aq
)
Th
e li
gh
tbul
b w
on
’t li
gh
t up
.
Mo
st m
ole
cula
r co
mp
oun
ds
are
no
ne
lect
roly
tes.
H2O
Ide
nti
fyth
efo
llow
ing
asst
ron
ge
lect
roly
te, w
eak
ele
ctro
lyte
, or
no
ne
lect
roly
te:
K2S
O4(
s)2K
+(a
q)
+ S
O42
- (aq
)
NH
3(g
)+
H2O
(l)
NH
4+(a
q)
+ O
H- (
aq)
C6H
12O
6(s)
C6H
12O
6(aq
)
H2O
H2O
Ind
icat
e w
he
the
r th
e a
que
ous
so
luti
on
s o
f eac
h o
f th
e fo
llow
ing
so
lute
s co
nta
in o
nly
io
ns,
on
ly m
ole
cule
s, o
r m
ost
ly m
ole
cule
wit
h fe
w io
ns:
Ace
tic
acid
, HC
2H3O
2, w
eak
ele
ctro
lyte
NaB
r, a
stro
ng
ele
ctro
lyte
Fruc
tose
, C6H
12O
6, a
no
ne
lect
roly
te
Wri
te a
bal
ance
d e
qua
tio
n fo
r th
e d
isso
ciat
ion
of t
he
str
on
g e
lect
roly
tes
in w
ate
r:
KC
l
Fe(N
O3)
3
Bo
dy
flui
ds
and
intr
ave
no
us (
IV)
solu
tio
ns
con
tain
a m
ixtu
re o
f ele
ctro
lyte
s, s
uch
as
Na+
, Cl- ,
K+, a
nd
Ca2
+
Eac
h io
n is
me
asur
ed
in te
rms
of a
n e
qui
vale
nt (
Eq)
Eq
uiv
alen
t (E
q):
the
am
oun
t of i
on
eq
ual t
o 1
mo
le o
f po
sitiv
e o
r n
eg
ativ
e
ele
ctri
cal c
har
ge.
Th
e c
on
cen
trat
ion
of e
lect
roly
tes
in IV
’s a
re e
xpre
sse
d in
eq
uiva
lent
s p
er li
ter
(Eq
/L)
or
mo
re c
om
mo
nly
mill
ieq
uiva
lent
s p
er li
ter
(mEq
/L).
1000
mE
q=
1 E
q
In a
ny s
olu
tio
n, t
he
ch
arg
es
of t
he
po
sitiv
e io
ns
is a
lway
s b
alan
ced
by
the
ch
arg
e o
f th
en
eg
ativ
eio
ns.
For
exam
ple
,aso
luti
on
con
tain
ing
25m
Eq
/Lo
fNa+
and
4m
Eq
/Lo
f K+
has
a
tota
l po
sitiv
e c
har
ge
of 2
9 m
Eq
/L.
If C
l-is
the
on
ly n
eg
ativ
e io
n, i
ts c
on
cen
trat
ion
mus
t be
29
mE
q/L
.
Th
e la
b te
sts
for
a p
atie
nt i
nd
icat
e a
blo
od
cal
cium
leve
l of 8
.8 m
Eq
/L.
a. H
ow m
any
mo
les
of c
alci
um i
on
s ar
e in
0.5
0 L
of b
loo
d?
b.I
f ch
lori
de
ion
isth
eo
nly
oth
er
ion
pre
sen
t,w
hat
isit
sco
nce
ntr
atio
nin
mE
q/L
?
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
De
fin
e s
olu
bil
ity;
dis
tin
gui
sh b
etw
ee
n a
n u
nsa
tura
ted
an
d a
sat
urat
ed
so
luti
on
. Id
en
tify
an
ion
ic c
om
po
und
as
solu
ble
or
inso
lub
le.
Th
e te
rm s
olub
ility
isus
ed
tod
esc
rib
e th
e a
mo
unt o
f so
lute
that
can
dis
solv
e in
a
giv
en
am
oun
t of s
olv
en
t.
Man
yfa
cto
rsca
naf
fect
the
solu
bil
ity
ofa
solu
te,s
uch
as:
the
typ
eo
fso
lute
th
e ty
pe
ofs
olv
en
t th
e te
mp
era
ture
Solu
bil
ity:
the
max
imum
amo
unto
fso
lute
that
can
be
dis
solv
ed
ata
cert
ain
te
mp
era
ture
.
Usu
ally
exp
ress
ed
as:
If a
so
lute
eas
ily d
isso
lve
d w
he
n a
dd
ed
to a
so
lve
nt,
the
so
luti
on
do
es
no
t co
nta
in th
e
max
imum
am
oun
t of s
olu
te y
et.
Th
isis
anu
nsa
tura
ted
solu
tion
.
A s
olu
tio
n th
at c
on
tain
s al
l th
e s
olu
te it
can
d
isso
lve
is c
alle
d s
atu
rate
d.
Insp
eci
alca
ses,
aso
luti
on
can
be
man
ipul
ate
d to
d
isso
lve
mo
re s
olu
te th
an it
sh
oul
d b
e a
ble
to. T
his
is
a s
up
ersa
tura
ted
sol
uti
on.
In a
sat
urat
ed
so
luti
on
, so
lute
wil
lco
nti
nue
tod
isso
lve.
But
for
eve
ryp
arti
cle
that
dis
solv
es,
ano
the
rth
atis
alre
ady
dis
solv
ed
wil
lre
crys
tall
ize
(tur
nb
ack
into
iso
rig
inal
stat
e,th
eo
pp
osi
teo
fdis
solv
e).
So th
ere
isn
oov
era
llch
ang
ein
the
amo
unto
fso
lute
dis
solv
ed
inso
luti
on
.
Solu
te +
So
lve
nt
S
atur
ate
d S
olu
tio
n
For
exam
ple
: ad
din
g s
ugar
to w
ate
r. If
yo
u ke
ep
ad
din
g s
ugar
, at s
om
e p
oin
t, n
o
mo
re w
ill d
isso
lve.
It r
em
ain
s a
soli
d. Y
ou’
ve s
atur
ate
d th
e s
olu
tio
n.
solu
ted
isso
lves
solu
tere
crys
tall
izes
At 2
0°C
, th
e s
olu
bil
ity
of K
Cli
s 34
g K
Cl/
100g
H2O
. In
the
lab
, a s
tud
en
t mix
es
75g
of
KC
lwit
h 2
00g
H2O
at a
tem
pe
ratu
re a
t 20°
C.
a.H
ow m
uch
of t
he
KC
lwil
l dis
solv
e?
b.
Isth
eso
luti
on
satu
rate
do
run
satu
rate
d?
c.H
owm
any
gra
ms
ofs
oli
dK
Clw
illb
ele
ftun
dis
solv
ed
atth
eb
ott
om
oft
he
con
tain
er?
Th
e c
on
dit
ion
s o
f go
ut a
nd
kid
ney
sto
ne
s in
volv
e c
om
po
und
s in
the
bo
dy
that
exc
ee
d th
eir
so
lub
ilit
y le
vels
an
d fo
rm s
oli
d
pro
duc
ts.
Gou
t(m
en
,40+
)–
uric
acid
inth
eb
loo
dex
cee
ds
its
solu
bil
ity
7mg
uric
aci
d p
er
100
mL
of p
lasm
a at
bo
dy
tem
pe
ratu
reSo
lid
uric
acid
inth
efo
rmo
fne
ed
le-l
ike
cry
stal
s fo
r in
car
tila
ge,
te
nd
on
s, s
oft
tiss
ues,
kid
ney
s…
Com
mon
caus
es:K
idn
eyfa
ilur
e,d
ieth
igh
inur
icac
id
pre
curs
ors
(m
eat
, sar
din
es,
mus
hro
om
s, a
spar
agus
, an
d
be
ans)
, alc
oh
ol
Trea
tmen
t:d
ietc
han
ge
s,m
ed
icat
ion
sth
atb
reak
dow
nur
icac
idan
d/o
r p
reve
nt u
ric
acid
pro
duc
tio
n
Kid
ney
sto
nes
–so
lid
cry
stal
s fo
rm in
the
uri
nar
y tr
act o
f cal
cium
ph
osp
hat
e, c
alci
um o
xala
te, a
nd
/or
som
eti
me
s ur
ic a
cid
that
hav
e e
xce
ed
ed
the
ir
solu
bil
itie
s.
caus
es
seve
rep
ain
Tre
atm
ent:
wai
tito
ut,u
ltra
soun
d, i
n e
xtre
me
cas
es
surg
ery
For
mos
t so
lid
s, s
olu
bil
ity
incr
ease
s as
tem
pe
ratu
re
incr
eas
es.
Wh
ich
me
ans
mo
re s
olu
te w
ill d
isso
lve
at
hig
he
r te
mp
era
ture
s.
Exa
mp
le: m
akin
g c
and
y
Afe
wsu
bst
ance
ssh
owli
ttle
chan
ge
in s
olu
bil
ity
aste
mp
era
ture
rise
s.
For
afe
wg
ase
s,so
lub
ilit
yd
ecre
ases
aste
mp
era
ture
incr
eas
es.
If y
ou’
ve e
ver
add
ed
sug
ar to
ice
dte
a,th
en
you
kn
owth
at,
in g
en
era
l, n
ot a
ll th
e s
ugar
dis
solv
es.
So
me
of i
t wil
l ac
cum
ulat
e a
t th
e b
ott
om
of t
he
gla
ssra
the
rth
and
isso
lve
into
the
tea.
But
if y
ou
add
sug
ar to
ho
t te
a, m
any
teas
po
on
s w
ill d
isso
lve
b
efo
re s
oli
d s
ugar
wil
l sta
rt to
re
mai
n.
Hot
tea
dis
solv
es m
ore
suga
r th
an c
old
tea
bec
ause
the
solu
bili
ty o
f sug
ar is
muc
h g
reat
er a
t hig
her
tem
per
atur
es.
Aft
er
add
ing
sug
arto
the
ho
tte
a,if
you
care
fully
leti
tco
ol,
the
sug
ar w
ill r
em
ain
d
isso
lve
d.
Now
the
ice
d te
a h
as m
ore
sug
ar th
an th
e
solu
bil
ity
at c
old
er
tem
pe
ratu
res
allo
ws.
It is
su
per
satu
rate
d.
Such
a s
olu
tio
n is
un
stab
le, a
nd
if th
e s
olu
tio
n
is d
istu
rbe
d, t
he
exc
ess
so
lute
may
re
crys
tall
ize
to th
e s
atur
ate
d s
olu
tio
n le
vel.
Th
e s
olu
bil
ity
of g
ase
s d
ecre
ases
aste
mp
era
ture
sri
se.T
his
isb
eca
use
aste
mp
era
ture
s ri
se, g
as p
arti
cle
s g
ain
mo
re
kin
eti
c e
ne
rgy
and
may
esc
ape
the
so
luti
on
.
Perh
aps
you’
ve n
oti
ced
mo
re c
arb
on
atio
n
leav
ing
a s
od
a as
it w
arm
s.
Ath
igh
tem
pe
ratu
res,
clo
sed
sod
aca
ns
wil
lb
urst
as
mo
re g
as m
ole
cule
s le
ave
the
so
luti
on
an
d in
cre
ase
the
gas
pre
ssur
e
insi
de.
ore
ut
ion
.
ion
sw
ill
Bio
log
ists
hav
e fo
und
that
in
cre
ase
d te
mp
era
ture
in
lake
s an
d r
ive
rs c
ause
s d
isso
lve
d o
xyg
en
to e
scap
e.
If te
mp
era
ture
s ri
se
suff
icie
ntly
, th
ere
isn
’t e
no
ugh
oxy
ge
n le
ft to
su
pp
ort
the
bio
log
ical
co
mm
unit
ies.
For
this
re
aso
n, p
owe
r p
lan
ts m
ust m
ake
the
ir o
wn
p
on
ds
to u
se w
ith
co
oli
ng
to
we
rs s
o th
ey d
on
’t w
arm
th
e s
urro
und
ing
wat
erw
ays
and
kil
l wil
dli
fe.
Hen
ry’s
Law
: th
e s
olu
bil
ity
of a
gas
in
a li
qui
d is
dir
ect
ly r
ela
ted
to th
e
pre
ssur
e o
f th
e a
s ab
ove
or
surr
ound
ing
the
liq
uid
.A
s th
e p
ress
ure
out
sid
e o
f th
e
liq
uid
incr
eas
es,
the
so
lub
ilit
y o
f th
e g
as in
cre
ase
s
Sod
a is
car
bo
nat
ed
by
usin
g C
O2
und
er
hig
h p
ress
ure
to
incr
eas
es
the
so
lub
ilit
y o
f th
e C
O2
in th
e
dri
nk
.
Wh
en
yo
u o
pe
n th
e c
an a
t at
mo
sph
eri
c p
ress
ure,
th
e p
ress
ure
in
the
can
dro
ps.
Th
is lo
we
rs th
e
solu
bil
ity
of t
he
CO
2in
the
dri
nk
an
d d
isso
lve
d C
O2
turn
s b
ack
into
a
gas
, cre
atin
g c
arb
on
atio
n.
Up
un
til n
ow, w
e’v
e a
ssum
ed
all
ion
ic c
om
po
und
s d
isso
lve
in w
ate
r. B
ut th
at’s
no
t en
tire
ly tr
ue.
Th
eso
lub
ilit
yru
les
giv
eso
me
gui
de
lin
es
abo
utio
nic
com
po
und
sin
wat
er.
Ion
ic c
om
po
und
s th
at a
re s
olu
ble
in w
ate
r ty
pic
ally
co
nta
in a
t le
ast o
ne
of t
he
se io
ns.
Onl
yan
ioni
cco
mp
ound
cont
aini
nga
solu
ble
catio
nor
anio
nw
illd
isso
lve
inw
ater
.
Mo
st c
om
po
und
s co
nta
inin
g C
l-ar
e s
olu
ble
in w
ate
r. E
xce
pti
on
s:A
gC
l,P
bC
l 2, a
nd
Hg
2Cl 2
are
inso
lub
le
Mo
stio
nic
com
po
und
sco
nta
inin
gSO
42-ar
eso
lub
lein
wat
er.
Exc
ep
tio
ns:
BaS
O4,
Pb
SO4,
CaS
O4,
SrS
O4
or
Hg
2SO
4ar
e in
solu
ble
Mo
st o
the
r io
nic
co
mp
oun
ds
are
inso
lub
le.
In a
n in
solu
ble
ion
ic
com
po
und
s, th
e s
tre
ng
th o
f th
e io
nic
bo
nd
s ar
e to
o
stro
ng
for
the
po
lar
wat
er
mo
lecu
les
to b
reak
.
Use
the
so
lub
ilit
y ru
les
to p
red
ict w
he
ther
the
foll
owin
g io
nic
co
mp
oun
ds
are
so
lub
le o
r in
solu
ble
in w
ate
r.
K2S
Ca(
NO
3)2
Pb
Cl 2
NaO
H
AlP
O4
We
can
use
so
lub
ilit
y ru
les
to p
red
ict
wh
eth
er a
so
lid
, (ca
lle
d a
pre
cip
itat
e),
fo
rms
wh
en
two
so
luti
on
s co
nta
inin
g
solu
ble
rea
ctan
ts a
re m
ixed
…
Wh
en
so
luti
on
s o
f NaC
lan
d A
gN
O3
are
mix
ed
, a w
hit
e s
oli
d fo
rms.
Wri
te th
e io
nic
an
d n
et i
on
ic e
qua
tio
n fo
r th
e r
eac
tio
n.
Pre
dic
t wh
eth
er
a so
lid
wo
uld
form
. If s
o, w
rite
the
ne
t io
nic
eq
uati
on
.
NH
4Cl +
Ca(
NO
3)2
Pre
dic
t wh
eth
er
a so
lid
wo
uld
form
. If s
o, w
rite
the
ne
t io
nic
eq
uati
on
.
Pb
(NO
3)2
+ K
Cl
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
Cal
cula
te t
he
co
nce
ntr
atio
n o
f a s
olu
te in
a s
olu
tio
n;
use
co
nce
ntr
atio
n u
nit
s to
cal
cula
te th
eam
oun
tofs
olu
teo
rso
luti
on
.G
ive
nth
evo
lum
ean
dco
nce
ntr
atio
no
faso
luti
on
,cal
cula
te t
he
am
oun
t of
ano
the
r re
acta
nt o
r p
rod
uct i
n a
re
acti
on
.
Th
e a
mo
unt o
f so
lute
dis
solv
ed
in a
ce
rtai
n a
mo
unt o
f so
luti
on
is c
alle
d th
e
con
cen
trat
ion
of t
he
so
luti
on
.T
his
sect
ion
loo
ks
atd
iffe
ren
tway
sto
exp
ress
aco
nce
ntr
atio
nas
ara
tio
no
fso
lute
and
solu
tio
n.
con
cen
trat
ion
=amoun
tofsolute
Am
oun
t of s
olu
te c
an b
e g
, mL,
or
mo
les
Am
oun
t of s
olu
tio
n c
an b
e g
, mL,
or
L
Mas
sp
erce
nt:
de
scri
be
sth
em
ass
oft
he
solu
tein
gra
ms
for
exac
tly10
0go
fso
luti
on
.
masspercent
=massofso
lute(g)masso
fsolution(g)
x100T
he
unit
so
fmas
sfo
rso
lute
and
solu
tio
nm
ust t
he
sam
e. (
kg
wo
uld
be
fin
e, a
s lo
ng
as
they
are
BO
TH
in k
g.)
Th
em
ass
ofs
olu
tio
n=
mas
so
fso
lute
+m
ass
ofs
olv
en
t
Wh
atis
the
mas
sp
erc
en
tify
ou
pre
par
e a
solu
tio
nb
ym
ixin
g 8
.00g
KC
l(so
lute
) w
ith
42
.00g
of w
ate
r (s
olv
en
t)?
Wh
at is
the
mas
s p
erc
en
t of N
aOH
in a
so
luti
on
pre
par
ed
by
dis
solv
ing
30.
0g o
f N
aOH
in 1
20.0
g o
f wat
er?
Be
caus
e th
e v
olu
me
of l
iqui
ds
are
eas
ily m
eas
ure
d, t
he
co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
of s
olu
tio
ns
are
oft
en
exp
ress
ed
as
volu
me
pe
rce
nt (
v/v)
.
Volu
me
per
cen
t:th
e v
olu
me
of s
olu
te in
exa
ctly
100m
L o
f so
luti
on
.
volumepercen
t=volume
ofsolute(mL
)volume
ofsolution(m
L)x100
Th
e u
nit
sm
ustb
eth
esa
me
for
bo
th.E
ith
er
mL
or
Lus
ually
Vo
lum
e o
f so
luti
on
= v
olu
me
of s
olu
te +
vo
lum
e o
f so
luti
on
The
lab
el i
ndic
ate
s th
at
van
illa
ext
ract
co
nta
ins
35%
(v/
v) a
lco
ho
l.
35m
L of
eth
anol
in e
very
10
0 m
L va
nil
la s
olu
tio
n.
A b
ott
le c
on
tain
s 59
mL
of l
em
on
ext
ract
so
luti
on
. If t
he
ext
ract
co
nta
ins
49 m
L o
f al
coh
ol,
wh
at is
the
vo
lum
e p
erc
en
t (v/
v) o
f th
e a
lco
ho
l in
the
so
luti
on
?
Mas
s/vo
lum
e p
erce
nt (
m/v
):d
esc
rib
es
the
mas
s o
f the
so
lute
in
gra
ms
for
exac
tly
100m
Lo
f sol
utio
n.
solu
teun
its:
gso
luti
on
un
its:
mL
mass/volume
percent=
massofsolute
(g)volume
ofsolution(m
L)x100
Th
e m
ass/
volu
me
pe
rce
nt i
s w
ide
ly u
sed
in
ho
spit
als
and
ph
arm
acie
s to
pre
par
e
intr
ave
no
us (
IV)
solu
tio
ns
and
med
icin
es.
For
exam
ple
,a5%
(m/v
) g
luco
se s
olu
tio
n
con
tain
s 5g
of g
luco
se in
100
mL
of s
olu
tio
n.
Th
e v
olum
e o
f so
luti
on
rep
rese
nts
the
co
mb
ine
d v
olum
es
of t
he
glu
cose
and
wat
er.
A p
ota
ssiu
m io
did
e s
olu
tio
n m
ay b
e u
sed
in a
die
t th
at is
low
in io
din
e.
A K
I so
luti
on
is p
rep
are
d b
y d
isso
lvin
g 5
.0g
of K
I in
en
oug
h w
ate
r to
g
ive
a fi
nal
vo
lum
e o
f 250
mL.
Wh
at is
the
mas
s/vo
lum
e p
erc
en
t (m
/v)
of t
he
KI s
olu
tio
n.
Th
e m
ost
co
mm
on
typ
e o
f co
nce
ntr
atio
n th
at c
he
mis
ts u
se is
mol
arit
y: t
he
num
be
r o
f mo
les
of s
olu
te in
exa
ctly
1L
of s
olu
tio
n.
Molarity(M)
=molesof
solutevolume
ofsolution(L
)W
hat
isth
em
ola
rity
of1
.0m
ole
so
fNaC
ldis
solv
ed
in e
no
ugh
wat
er
to
mak
e 2
.0L
of s
olu
tio
n?
Wh
at is
the
mo
lari
ty (
M)
of 6
0.0g
NaO
Hin
0.2
50L
of s
olu
tio
n?
In th
e p
rep
arat
ion
of s
olu
tio
n, w
e o
fte
n n
ee
d to
cal
cula
te t
he
am
oun
t of s
olu
te o
r so
luti
on
. If t
he
co
nce
ntr
atio
n is
kn
own
, it i
s us
efu
l to
use
as
a co
nve
rsio
n f
acto
r. A
top
ical
an
tib
ioti
c is
1.0
% (
m/v
) cl
ind
amyc
in. H
ow m
any
gra
ms
of c
lin
dam
ycin
are
in
60
mL
of t
he
so
luti
on
?
How
man
y li
ters
of a
2.0
0M N
aCls
olu
tio
n a
re n
ee
de
d to
pro
vid
e 6
7.3g
of N
aCl?
Wh
en
ch
em
ical
re
acti
on
s in
volv
e a
que
ous
so
luti
on
s, w
e u
se
the
bal
ance
dch
em
ical
eq
uati
on
the
mo
lari
ty
the
vo
lum
e
go
de
term
ine
the
mo
les
or
gra
ms
oft
he
reac
tan
tso
rp
rod
ucts
.
Zin
c re
acts
wit
h H
Clt
o p
rod
uce
hyd
rog
en
gas
, H2,
and
Zn
Cl 2
.
Zn(s
)+
2HC
l(aq
) H
2(g
) +
Zn
Cl 2
(aq
)
How
man
yli
ters
ofa
1.50
M H
Cls
olu
tio
n c
om
ple
tely
re
act w
ith
5.3
2g o
f zin
c?
How
man
y m
L o
f a 0
.250
M B
aCl 2
solu
tio
n a
re n
ee
de
d to
re
act w
ith
0.0
325L
of a
0.
160M
Na 2
SO4
solu
tio
n?
Na 2
SO4(
aq)
+B
aCl 2
(aq
)B
aSO
4(s)
+2N
aCl(
aq)
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
De
scri
be
the
dil
utio
n o
f a s
olu
tio
n; c
alcu
late
the
un
kn
own
co
nce
ntr
atio
n o
r vo
lum
e w
he
n a
so
luti
on
is d
ilut
ed
.
In c
he
mis
try
and
bio
log
y, w
e o
fte
n p
rep
are
d
ilut
ed
so
luti
on
s fr
om
mo
reco
nce
ntr
ate
do
ne
s.
In a
pro
cess
cal
led
dil
uti
on, a
so
lve
nt (
usua
lly
wat
er)
is a
dd
ed
to a
so
luti
on
, whi
ch in
cre
ase
s th
e v
olum
e.
As
are
sult
,the
con
cen
trat
ion
oft
heso
luti
on
de
cre
ase
s.
For
exam
ple
, wh
en
yo
u m
ake
juic
e fr
om
fro
zen
co
nce
ntr
ate,
yo
u ad
d 3
can
s o
f wat
er
to d
ilut
e th
e o
ran
ge
juic
e (
solu
te).
Th
e a
mo
unt o
f so
lute
do
esn
’t ch
ang
e. I
t is
just
sp
read
out
ove
r a
larg
er
volu
me.
C1V
1=
C2V
2
C –
con
cen
trat
ion
(p
erc
en
t co
nce
ntr
atio
n o
r m
ola
rity
)V
-vo
lum
e
A d
oct
or
ord
ers
100
0mL
of a
35.
0% (
m/v
) d
extr
ose
so
luti
on
.
If y
ou
hav
e a
50.
0% (
m/v
) d
extr
ose
so
luti
on
, how
man
y m
L w
oul
d y
ou
use
to p
rep
are
10
00m
L o
f 35.
0% (
m/v
) d
extr
ose
so
luti
on
?
Wh
atis
the
mo
lari
tyo
faso
luti
on
wh
en
75.0
mL
ofa
4.00
M K
Cls
olu
tio
n is
dil
ute
d to
a
volu
me
of 5
00m
L?
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9
Ide
nti
fy a
mix
ture
as
a so
luti
on
, a c
oll
oid
, or
a su
spe
nsi
on
. De
scri
be
how
the
n
umb
er
of p
arti
cle
s in
a s
olu
tio
n a
ffe
cts
the
fre
ezi
ng
po
int,
the
bo
ilin
g p
oin
t, an
d th
e o
smo
tic
pre
ssur
e o
f a s
olu
tio
n.
Th
e s
ize
an
d n
umb
er
of s
olu
te p
arti
cle
s in
d
iffe
ren
t typ
es
of m
ixtu
res
pla
y an
imp
ort
ant r
ole
in
de
term
inin
g th
e p
rop
ert
ies
of t
ho
se m
ixtu
res.
In s
olu
tion
s, t
he
so
lute
is d
isso
lve
d a
s sm
all p
arti
cle
s th
at
are
un
ifo
rmly
dis
pe
rse
d th
roug
ho
ut th
e s
olv
en
t to
giv
e a
h
om
og
en
eo
us s
olu
tio
n.
Wh
en
you
loo
k a
t a s
olu
tio
n, s
uch
as
salt
wat
er,
you
can
no
t vi
sual
ly d
isti
ng
uish
the
so
lute
fro
mth
eso
lve
nt.
Th
e s
olu
tio
n a
pp
ear
s tr
ansp
are
nt,
alth
oug
h it
may
hav
e a
co
lor.
Th
ep
arti
cle
sar
eso
smal
lth
atth
eyw
illp
ass
thro
ugh
filt
ers
and
sem
ipe
rme
able
me
mb
ran
es.
Sem
ipe
rme
able
me
mb
ran
es
allo
w s
olv
en
t mo
lecu
les
such
as
wat
er
and
ve
ry s
mal
l par
ticl
es
to p
ass
thro
ugh
, but
no
t lar
ge
p
arti
cle
s.
Th
e p
arti
cle
s in
a c
ollo
idar
e m
uch
larg
er
than
so
lute
par
ticl
es
in a
so
luti
on
.
Co
llo
idal
par
ticl
es
are
larg
em
ole
cule
s,su
chas
pro
tein
s,o
rg
roup
so
fmo
lecu
les
or
ion
s.
Co
llo
idal
par
ticl
es,
sim
ilar
to s
olu
tio
ns,
are
h
om
og
en
eo
us m
ixtu
res
that
do
no
t se
par
ate
or
sett
le. O
ut.
Co
llo
idal
par
ticl
es
are
sm
all e
no
ugh
to p
ass
thro
ugh
filt
ers
, but
too
larg
e fo
r se
mip
erm
eab
le
me
mb
ran
es.
Inco
llo
ids
the
solu
teis
n’t
ne
cess
arily
the
sam
est
ate
asth
eso
lve
nt.
Susp
ensi
ons:
he
tero
ge
ne
ous
, no
nun
ifo
rm m
ixtu
res
that
are
ve
ry
dif
fere
nt f
rom
so
luti
on
s to
co
llo
ids.
Th
ep
arti
cle
so
fa s
usp
en
sio
n a
re s
o la
rge
that
they
can
oft
en
be
se
en
w
ith
the
nak
ed
eye
.
Th
eyca
nn
otp
ass
thro
ugh
filt
ers
no
rse
mip
erm
eab
lem
em
bra
ne
s.
Th
ew
eig
hto
fth
esu
spe
nd
ed
solu
tep
arti
cle
sca
use
sth
em
tose
ttle
out
soo
naf
ter
mix
ing
If y
ou
stir
mud
dy
wat
er,
it m
ixe
sth
en
qui
ckly
sep
arat
es
asth
e s
usp
en
de
d d
irt
par
ticl
es
sett
leto
the
bo
tto
man
d le
ave
cle
ar w
ate
r o
n to
p.
Wat
er-
tre
atm
en
t pla
nts
mak
e u
se o
f th
e p
rop
ert
ies
of s
usp
en
sio
ns
to p
urif
y w
ate
r. W
he
n c
he
mic
als
such
as
alum
inum
sul
fate
or
iro
n (
III)
sul
fate
are
ad
de
d to
un
tre
ate
d w
ate
r, th
ey r
eac
t wit
h im
pur
itie
s to
form
larg
e s
usp
en
de
d p
arti
cle
s ca
lle
d fl
oc. F
ilte
rsth
en
trap
the
par
ticl
es
and
allo
wth
ecl
ean
wat
er
top
ass
thro
ugh
.
Wh
en
we
ad
d a
so
lute
to w
ate
r, it
ch
ang
es
seve
ral p
rop
ert
ies
of t
he
wat
er:
Vap
or
pre
ssur
eB
oil
ing
po
int
Fre
ezi
ng
po
int
Th
ese
ch
ang
es
de
pe
nd
on
ly o
n h
ow m
any
solu
te p
arti
cle
sar
ead
de
dan
dd
ep
en
dn
oth
ing
on
wh
atsp
eci
fic
com
po
und
itis
.
Vap
or p
ress
ure
:T
he
pre
ssur
e e
xert
ed
by
the
p
arti
cle
s o
f vap
or
abov
e a
liq
uid
.
In o
rde
r fo
r ev
apo
rati
on
(an
d th
us v
apo
r p
ress
ure
) to
o
ccur
, mo
lecu
les
mus
tbe
very
ne
arth
eli
qui
d’s
su
rfac
e.
Ifa
no
nvo
lati
le(l
owva
po
rp
ress
ure
)so
lute
isad
de
d,
solu
tem
ole
cule
sb
lock
asm
any
solv
en
t mo
lecu
les
fro
m b
ein
g n
ear
the
sur
face
. Cau
sin
g a
low
erva
po
r p
ress
ure.
As
mo
reso
lute
isad
de
d,m
ore
par
ticl
es
com
pe
tefo
rth
esu
rfac
e,an
dth
elo
we
rp
ress
ure
be
com
es
low
er.
Th
e b
oil
ing
po
int o
f a s
olv
en
t is
rais
ed
wh
en
a
no
nvo
lati
le s
olu
te is
ad
de
d.
Re
call
: to
bo
il, t
he
vap
or
pre
ssur
e m
ust r
eac
h
atm
osp
he
ric
pre
ssur
e. If
the
vap
or
pre
ssur
e is
low
er
to
be
gin
wit
h, i
t wil
l tak
e m
ore
he
at to
incr
eas
e th
e
pre
ssur
e to
atm
osp
he
ric
pre
ssur
e.
Th
e fr
ee
zin
g p
oin
t of a
so
lve
nt i
s lo
we
red
w
he
n a
no
nvo
lati
le s
olv
en
tis
ad
de
d.
Re
call
:wh
en
asu
bst
ance
fre
eze
s,th
em
ole
cule
s st
ruct
ure
the
mse
lve
s ve
ry
org
aniz
ed
.
Wh
en
solu
teis
add
ed
,itp
reve
nts
the
solv
en
tmo
lecu
les
fro
mb
eco
min
g
org
aniz
ed
.So
alo
we
rte
mp
era
ture
isre
qui
red
tofo
rce
the
org
aniz
atio
n.
Osm
osis
: wat
er m
olec
ules
mov
e th
roug
h a
se
mip
erm
eab
le m
em
bra
ne
fro
m th
e s
olu
tio
n
wit
h th
e l
ower
con
cen
trat
ion
of s
olu
te in
to a
so
luti
on
wit
h th
e h
igh
er c
once
ntr
atio
no
f so
lute
. T
his
dil
ute
sth
em
ore
con
cen
trat
ed
sid
ew
ith
the
eve
ntu
alre
sult
ofb
oth
solu
tio
ns
hav
ing
the
sam
eco
nce
ntr
atio
n.
On
lyso
lven
tm
olec
ule
sm
ove
thro
ugh
the
m
em
bra
ne.
No
t so
lute
.
Rev
erse
osm
osis
: ap
ply
ing
pre
ssur
e to
forc
e
wat
er
to m
ove
fro
m h
igh
er t
o lo
wer
con
cen
trat
ion
.R
em
ove
s im
pur
itie
s.
9.1
–So
luti
on
s
9.2
–E
lect
roly
tes
and
No
ne
lect
roly
tes
9.3
–So
lub
ilit
y
9.4
–So
luti
on
Co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
and
Re
acti
on
s
9.5
–D
ilut
ion
of S
olu
tio
ns
9.6
–P
rop
ert
ies
ofS
olu
tio
ns
Ch
apte
r 9