7W580 19th Century Theory

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19th century theory

code 7W580

urban theory and design of public space



2J.J.Moll ‘Ideal City for 100.000 inhabitants’ 1809

J.J.Moll plan for an ideal city with 100.000 inhabitants 1809

To be situated in Bretagne (France). This is exemplary for the numerous ideal plans that wereproduced during this period. They reflect the growing concern about the growth of cities andthe form of most existing cities. Strict geometry and a rational organization are the antithesis ofthe labyrinth of medieval streets and alleys in older cities. It reflects the ideas of theenlightment that history is a process that moves forward to an ever 'higher' level, thatrationality is the way to progress and that 'new' represents 'better'. Ideas that persist until thepresent day.

UTOPISTS

Throughout the nineteenth century there have been theorists that can be classified as utopist. Autopist is a theorist that makes images of the future -be it as designs or as written text - thatrepresent a radical break with common practice and are not based on extrapolation of thepresent situation. In stead certain ideals form the basis. Utopist ideas are aimed at making agiant leap in either social or technical developments. They also tend to be one sided, lookingonly at a limited number of aspects and ignoring others or use unrealistic prepositions forthem.

Many utopist city designs claim te be technical or rational but most of them implicitly or explicitlypresuppose radically different forms of society or idealized forms of human behavior.

At the beginning of the 19th century most theory on urban design can be classified as beingutopian.



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Fourier

Phalanstère

1814

Charles Fourier Phalanstère 1814

In the nineteenth century there were several utopists plans for completely new forms ofsettlements consisting of several large buildings with collective housing in a rural setting.These always presupposed an idealized form of collective living.

The growth of cities sparked an anti-urban movement that had not existed before, in fact op untilthe end of the 17th century most theorists had rejected the idea of the garden city as being'non urban'. The anti-urban movement was fed by ideas about the supposed qualities of sociallive outside the city and the positive influence of nature. The rise of romanticism gave rise tothe idea that cities were 'unnatural' and thus undesirable.



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Robert Owen

New Lanark 1800

Brochure 1817

Harmony, Indiana

Robert Owen 1817

Around 1800 Robert Owen had built New Lanark for his factory workers. This settlementincorporated all kinds of improvements in living conditions that attracted much interest. Owenextends his real life actions into a theory. In 1813 he publicizes the book 'A new view ofsociety'. In 1817 a brochure on the idea of new settlements in the countryside. However thereis a gap between theory and practice. New Lanark is by no means the idealistic communityOwen propagates in his books, it is led autocratic by him and everything is geared towardsproductivity.

Stedman Whitwell later elaborates Owens ideas in his design for the community 'Harmony' inIndiana. 'Harmony' in this and in other utopies up until the pleasant day represents the idea ofpeople that conform to the ideas of the makers of the utopy. Almost always this is the idea ofthe 'docile law obeying model citizen', a projection of middle- and upper-class virtues.



5Pugin 1841

August Welby Pugin 1841

"Contrasts: Or, Parallel between the Noble Edifices of the Middle Ages, And Corresponding

Buildings of the Present Day "

The image tries to convey the message that modern cities are degenerated esthetically andmutatis mutandi also morally.

Garden Cities of Tomorrow

Ofcourse the most well known utopian theory of the 19th century is Ebenezer Howards 'Gardencities of tomorrow'. Again a theory that idealizes rural life. However Howards idea is veryabstract, he has no idea how the urban fabric and public space will look. Perhaps it could besaid that he introduces the idea that one could talk about the design of cities as a form oforganization, independent of the way it would be materialized. This idea became an importantaspect of planning in the middle 20th century, with all negative consequences attached to it.

The romantic urban form associated with Howard, in fact originates from later designers.Howard himself later on even was a member of the modernist CIAM movement.



6William Hesketh Lever, Port Sunlight, 1888

William Hesketh Lever: Port Sunlight 1888

Philanthropist employers form a seperate category. During the 19th century several industrialistsbuild model villages for their employees, partly out of humanitarian reasons, partly becausethey believe it will improve productivity, partly because they want to attract good workers byoffering attractive living conditions. Almost always these villages fall into the non-urbancategory. Workers enjoy nice surroundings and facilities but are also controlled.

Other examples in England:

Copley 1847

Saltaire 1850

Akroydon 1859

Examples in The Netherlands:

Agnetapark, Delft 1884. This was exceptionally spacious, attracting international attention.

Snouck van Loosenpark, Enkhuizen 1895Both examples still exist as monuments.



7William Hesketh Lever, Port Sunlight, 1888

Two building blocks in Port Sunlight

Spacious streets with trees. Broken building lines, large communal areas in the centre of theblocks.



8Nashville 1897, Omaha 1898, Buffalo 1901, St. Louis 1904 (illustrated above)

‘White Cities’ Columbian Exposition Chicago 1893

White Cities 1893 and later

At the end of the 19th century in the United States groups of architects and citizensstarted to promote the idea of an artistically designed city. This became known as the'City beautiful movement'. Most American cities were layed out in a pure functionalway, at its best with a grid giving some order, at its worst without any planning at all.In their eyes the American towns lacked esthetics and needed an ordered approach tobe able to cope with the rapid growing economy and growing wealth. The estheticideas were based on the type of architecture called 'beaux arts architecture', after thefamous French school of architecture that dominated current ideas about 'goodarchitecture' in the 19th century. The propagated style was eclectic, had an extremeplasticity and was heavily decorated figuratively and literally.

They started to promote their ideas on a grand scale by building life size idealized urbansituations in the form of pavilions for several great exhibitions that were a sign of theemerging industrial power of the USA. The first of these exhibitions was the

Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. Looking at photographs like the one aboveone has to keep in mind that all visible structures are temporary, made out of'cardboard and plaster'.

Although exactly this kind of over elaborate architecture became the focus of the criticismof the modern movement, there was a curious similarity. Both movements favoredwhite as the color of preference for buildings. This is why the exhibitions becameknown as 'white cities'.



9Soria y Mata ‘Cuidad lineal’ 1894

5 0 0 m300 m

300 m

60 m

Soria y Mata, Cuidad lineal 1894

The concept of linear cities was based on the idea that a rational and technical approachcould be the solution for the problems of expanding cities. It relied heavily on theelectrical tramway as a means of transportation. The city was to be grouped around atramway, its width determined by maximum walking distances to the tramway stops.

Although it look very feasible, the idea has a high utopian content. The plan proposesvery low building densities, this is contra dictionary to public transport that needs tohave a high population density to be profitable. Tramways were also an expensiveway of transport. Up until the middle of the 20th century the fares were to high for thelower classes in society. So Soria y Matas plan presupposes a dramatic drop in fareprices, just as modern day environment utopists presuppose a dramatic drop in theprices of alternative energy.

Size of the blocks: 300 x 500 meters.

Maximum walking distance to the tramway line 5 minutes

Width of the main street 60 meters with a central zone of 20 meters for trams and horsecarriages and zones with trees, footpaths and roads for local traffic on both sides.



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Publications

Publications

In the 19th century urban design becomes a seperate issue. This is reflected in publications. Atthe beginning of the century there are public debates and discussions in architecturalmagazines. The explosive growth of cities rises the awareness that urban design has to covermore subjects than symbolic value, experiencing space and beautification of the city. Thedemands on public space change. Fast and mass transport become important, the demandsof industry have to be met, large number of people have to be housed, more and more publicspace is also used at night.

It is not without reason that the first handbooks on urban design and planning have a flavor ofstrong civil engineering. This had led some to believe that theory on urban design in the 19thcentury was dominated by civil engineering. However one has to keep in mind that at that timeesthetics were considered to be a matter of course that needed no further explanation, just astechnical aspects were part of any architects work.



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Ildefonso Cerdà

‘Teoriá General Urbanizacón’ 1867

• Aimed at organisaton, use, regulation

• Urban design = engineering

– Traffic central issue in design

– Process of ‘Urbanisation’

Idelfonso Cerdà, Teoriá General Urbanizacón, 1867

The first book on urban design was publicized in 1867. This immediately shows the differences with allprevious theory. Its writer, Cerdà (1815 - 1876) had a background as an army engineer with an extensiveknowledge in the field of mathematics - this is reflected in his works. In 1848 he starts his own practice as

an urban designer/planner. Remarkable for the time! It might well be that he was the first specializedprofessional in the field.

Cerdà's way of working is strongly oriented towards organization, use and regulation. His plans in principleare a kind of organizational schemes. However he keeps a keen eye for details and the relation betweenthe detail and the whole. He even is a kind of expert in architectural detailing.

The circumstances in 1850's Spain partly explain his approach. As a practicing urban designer/planner hewas not in a position to realize autocratic 'artistic' plans. Opinion among the ruling classes was very muchagainst any government interference that exceeded stimulating the economy to their advantage. It is notwithout reason that in Cerdà's plans the architectural elaboration is restricted to examples. On the otherhand he pays a lot of attention to parcellation, ground politics, juridical matters and economic aspects.

According to Cerdà urban design/planning should become a field of engineering. In his eyes traffic is the most

important issue in designing cities. To emphasize the non-artistic and more technical approach hedevelops his own vocabulary. This is often the case when new disciplines try to distinguish themselvesfrom 'the rest'. Around 1860 he introduces the word 'urbanización', which really stuck in languages all overthe world as did the use of the word 'urban'. He preferred using the word 'urb' for settlements toemphasize that the new discipline was about cities ánd villages*. Building blocks are called 'inter-roads'.This word is used by Cerdà to emphasize that the network of roads determines the form, size and the lightsituation of the building blocks. It is a clear indication that his emphasis is on public space and foremost ontraffic. In Spain Cerdà is considered to be the godfather of Gran Vias (Grand streets), the Spanishequivalent of Boulevards.

*For Dutch students:

Dat is ook de reden waarom Nederlandse professionals na uitvoerige discussie besloten tot de spelling 'stedebouw', omdat het in hetvak gaat om stede (= woonplek) en niet om steden. Blijkbaar is dat besef weg want de invoering van de spelling 'stedenbouw' door stompzinnige en ter zake onkundige taalhervormers is zonder slag of stoot geaccepteerd.



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Ildefonso Cerdà

‘Teoriá General Urbanizacón’ 1867

• Aimed at organisaton, use, regulation

• Urban design = engineering

– Traffic central issue in design

– Process of ‘Urbanisation’

• Survey as a basis for design

• Hygiene / health: green in the city; ‘Rurification’

Continued

Cerdà considers systematic survey to be the basis of design. His approach to design isencyclopedic: he compares a lot of situations all over the world to draw conclusions on themost best possible solution given the circumstances and also uses statistics. This can beconsidered to be the true start of modern planning. His figures on average street widths andsizes of building blocks all over the world are still interesting today.

Hygiene and health are important considerations in Cerdàs work. In the course of the 19th centurythese are becoming some of the most important incentives for improvements in the urbanenvironment and for the development of the profession. With health in mind Cerdàs plans areaimed at what he calls 'rurification' of the city: more green, lower densities.

Cerda's book is based on his experience in urban design/planning, especially in Barcelona wherehe was able to make a plan for an extremely large city extension, six fold the size of theexisting city. This plan was executed and is by for the largest 19th century plan in Europe.Whereas a large scale reconstruction plan, as the one in Paris, did nothing to improve thehousing situation, Cerdàs plan foresees a large new areas for housing in situations that inprinciple offer far better living conditions than the old town. However he had no say in thebuilding types, the days of social housing are still a long way away.



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Cerdà, Plan for Barcelona 1859

Cerda, plan for Barcelona 1859

In this original colored version, that is far less known than the black and white versions of the plan,it becomes clear that Cerdà wanted to make a greener city. This was to be achieved by largegardens in the building blocks, a number of public parks and trees in the streets.



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Hierarchy in roads

The plan was layed out rational. The width of the streets adapted to the expected intensity oftraffic. A big difference with later modernist plans is that the hierarchy of streets is nottranslated into a 'tree structure'. The city remains a 'rhizome', a matrix that can be accessedfrom all points.



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Parishes

Parishes

The clean, almost mathematical systematics of the division in neighborhoods foreshadow latermodernist plans and modern day systematic planning.



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Jurisdiction districts

Juridical districts

Parisches and disctrict are demarcated by the directions of the buildings in the building blocks.



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Making public space

Cerdà creates different public spaces by playing with a few types of standard building blocks. Thisis type of 'standardisation' typical for many technical innovations over time. Many buildingsystems are based on the same principle. The problem is that the diversity claimed by theirdesigners is only a very limited diversity. You can make things that remind of cars, planes orhouses in Lego, but making real useful objects is a different matter. This can be a metaphor forthe pitfall of thinking in terms of systems.

Upper Left:

1. A combination of blocks that marks the corner of a district.

2. Reversed blocks to form a large square.

Lower Left:

3. Blocks along a railway line.

4. Blocks organized in different ways to achive variation in a route.

Upper Right:

Composition of building blocks in relation to a Gran Via (double blue line).

Lower Right:

Super blocks, created by the disposition of buildings in four normal blocks.



18Variation of building pattern per parish

Variation in parishes

Cerdà tries to achieve variation in the built environment by varying the disposition of buildingswithin each block for each individual parish. One could ask one self if this is enough variationgiven the fact that the mathematics do not vary. It is doubtful that varying building masses inan urban design achieves a varied environment. This can be seen in many modern planswhere urban designers have tried to achieve variation by varying the position and height ofbuilding masses without considering the architecture. A straight street with variations inarchitecture most of the time is much more pleasant than a street with the same type ofarchitecture, be it with some variation in the building line and height.

Cerdà of course had no influence on the architecture, he even could or would not fix buildingheights, so his effort is understandable within the logic of his plan. Varying the plan would havebeen another option, but this was out of the question within his rational ideas.



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Building block

A typological drawing by Cerdà showing his ideas about the building blocks.

It shows a kind of maximum situation. Many of the blocks in Cerdàs design for Barcelona onlyhave buildings on two sides to allow for more green space. Others have buildings in an L-shape.



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Idem with dimensions

Normal streets were 20 meters wide, Gran Vias 50 meters. The blocks are beveled, just as LeNotre already had recommended. Cerdà gives as a reason that carriages could turn moreeasily if the street corners were wide. The inside of the block contains gardens for the houseson the loewer levels and a central communal green space. This is seperated from public spaceby a gate. It also contains two houses four the keepers of the central space. Cerdà did notdefine building height for two reasons, first of all it was not considered approriate to interferewith individual descions. It was already a great achievement that the Cerdà had managed toimplement the plan at all an to incorporate public services that were owned by and were theresponsibility of the local gouvernment. This was a revolutionary idea in a time when it was thehabit that the only involvement of local gouvernment in urban plans was to give permission tobuild while everything, including public space, was made by private interrests. A secondreason for not restricting building height is that at that time no ordinary building was higher thatfive or six stories and nobody expected them to be higher ever. This was for the invention of

the lift, modern steel constuction and the high rise building.The trees in the streets are an inherent part of the plan is as is the idea of using traffic islands to

facilitate crossing the streets.



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Calculations by Cerdà

From a later English translation of his work. Calculating the usabable floor space in two buildingblocks in the plan. This had directly to do with the exploitation of the plan.



22Cerda, Pamphlet 1863

Street crossings

From a 1863 pamphlet by Cerdà

Before publishing his book, Cerdà made several pamphlets to show his ideas.Left:

Showing the arguments for beveling the building blocks to facilitate traffic. However Cerdà alsorefers to the theories of LeNotre and Patte, that provide artistic reasons for the beveling. It isnot clear if this was just to get the idea accepted on the grounds that famous forerunners werein favor of it, or if Cerdà really believed in the combination of functional and artistic arguments.

Right:

Six examples of designs for traffic islands. These are mend to allow a save passage forpedestrians. In many designs Cerdà incorporates pavilions so pedestrians can wait protectedfrom the sun. Traffic in big cities around 1860 was already so crowded that it was hard forpedestrians to cross safely.



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Ideal cross section of a secondary street

Cerdà distinguished between two types of streets: main streets 50 meters wide and secondarystreets 35 meters wide. In all streets there would be seperate lanes for different types of traffic.He also wanted to integrate rail traffic into the streets, but apparently more for freight trafficthan as a means of public transport. Perhaps he had not heard of the newest form of urban railtransport: the tramway. It is clear that sewerage was an important part of his plan. This wasindeed an important innovation of the time, althoug Patte already had suggested to equip citieswith modern sewerage. It is also clear that Cerdà is no landscape architect. The trees couldnot survive if they were planted the way he suggests.



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Adaptions of the ideal street

In practice Cerdà is forced to adapt his ideal profile. In Barcelona the width of the secondarystreets is reduced to 20 meters and the rows of trees to two. In a second step of economizingthe seperate traffic zones are reduced to two type: carriages and pedestrians. Most space isreserved for carriages.



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Gran Via Barcelona approx. 1930

Talking about streets Cerdà remarks: "Let the streets of new urbs be as long and straight as

possible." (All quotes of Cerda in this part of the lecture are from the English translation of his 1867 handbook on

urban design). In his eyes streets should provide the shortest possible connection between partsof the city. He remarks that some find long straight streets dull or bad for the mind, but the cityshould never be subordinate to the demands of those that have a weak mind.

According to Cerdà a city is not a place for recreation where people go in search of illusions andpleasure, but a marvelous centre of activities and the reality of life. So he agrees with the anti-urban movement about the undesirability of sinful side of the city, but he sees possibilities toovercome these by new urban forms, not by idyllic rural utopies.



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Integration of railways into the urban fabric

Reconstruction of the ideas of Cerdà about the integration of inter-local railways (local railwayswould be integrated into the streets).

Cerda was looking for what he called 'railway urbanization', but his ideas did not materialize in theplan.



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Gullies, public latrines

Left: design of a gully. Right: design of a hydro pneumatic system to empty latrines. Cerdàs planshad aspects that in a later period would have been called 'futuristic‘.

STREET FURNISHING

Cerdà plans 'A great variety of objects that protrude and have a direct influence on the road itself' .In general these meet the demands of pedestrians. Among them:

• Public benches.

• Public latrines and toilets.

• Drinking fountains.

• Covered galleries and pavilions to protect against sun and rain.

• When it is not possible to make galeries: lines of trees to protect agains the sun. He

emphasizes that trees are also beneficial for health and that they are decorative.• Places were carriages can stop outside the main road lanes. Cerdà is specifically referring to

taxis. This was a new phenomenon in Barcelona at the time. It had become very popular in ashort period of time and was the cause of much nuisance because the carriages stopped inrandom places and blocked the roads.

Cerdà suggests that the street furnishing should be financed by dividing the costs between allground owners and taxing them. This is a new thought that has become normal praxis in the20teh century.



28Street furnishing

Fitting out of the streets

Note the central pedestrian crossing in the street.

Cerdà has two main principles for the positioning of the fitting out of the street.1. There should be a strict division between public and private space. Cerdà specifically mentions

that private owners may not be forced to allow public arcades under their buildings, like inmany older towns. On the other hand he rejects any private infringement of public space byover hanging buildings or even by balconies.

2. At all costs it must be avoided that street furniture hampers the flow of traffic. He says forinstance 'Trees beautify the aspect, offer shadow to urban pedestrians and in particular

contribute to healthy air ' but in narrow streets 'despite their good services they obstruct the

flow of traffic '.

He uses this argument as a plea for wide streets, because streets should contain trees.

About statues he remarks that he has nothing against them but they should not be in the

way because public transportation is the primary need of a city. Keeping in mind thetraffic function of the streets he devises the following standard furnishing:

• Trees every 8 meters

• Lanterns every 28 meters. Lanterns are important according to Cerdà because streetsshould be able to function day and night.

• Benches on all four edges of pedestrian crossings.

• Stone benches built into the wall at each front door. Meant for heavy laden pedestriansto put their cargo on to rest for a while. Much of the cargo was still carried by personson their back in stead of by carriages.

• Taxi stands in regular distances at the sides of the building blocks to minimize

nuisance. Extra space for the stands could be provided to make the street extra wideby setting back the buildings.



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Facade designed according to the principles of Cerdà

Although he did not make rules for the architecture in his Barcelona plan, Cerdà had his ownideas about what would be the ideal architecture: Flat and sober facades. This is one of thefew buildings in present Barcelona that conforms to his ideas. Only the balcony must be alater addition because Cerdà rejected the intrusion of public space it represented.



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Street with trees in the Cerdà plan in Barcelona



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Designs for pavement

Cerdà pays a lot of attention to the design of pavements. He sees the pavement as a source ofinformation for the user.

Left: general idea for the pavement of a street with 7 zones. Right: a pedestrian crossing.Bottom left: design for the entrances to stables for carriages. The pavement is used to emphasize

the potentially dangerous places were carriages cross the zones for pedestrians and horsemen.

Example of a combination of bench and lantern that can be found in the Cerdà plan at pedestriancrossings. An innovative design reflecting the innovative character of Cerdàs ideas

Cerdà extensively occupies him self with the relation between street and building. In this respecthe talks about the 'transversal functioning of buildings'. The side walk plays an important roleas a link between building and public space. "Without the shadow of a doubt the side walk

originally was not so much an addition as well as an integral part of the design of buildings,

without it they could not exist " The sidewalk "....is something like an intermediate between the

space it circumscribes (meant are the building blocks) and the roads, it facilitates

harmoniously the transition of movements between them."

The sidewalk around the building blocks is important for an other reason. It is the meeting point fortwo apparently contradicting concepts: 'to connect' and 'to isolate'. The function of isolating thebuildings from the busy and noisy streets is permanent and is determined by the width of theside walks. The function of connecting buildings to public space is determined by thearchitecture: the design of doors, gates, windows, niches, walls and fences.

The extensive motivation by Cerdà reflects his interest in fundamental aspects of the use of publicspace. It is also inspired by the necessity to convince policy makers that investing in public

space is important in a time hardly any money was spend at all for public space.



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Public awnings

Cerdà is opposed to arcades under private houses, but he is in favor of making awnings. Hedistinguishes between several types of awnings and lists their pro's and con's. Awnings andgalleries were very much in fashion at that time. Upper illustration: project for glass awningsfor a square in Madrid. Ananymous, 1858.

Lower illustration: diagram from a manuscript by Cerdà for his 1958 Barcelona plan. A freestanding awning, centrally in the street.



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Private gardens

Common garden

Entrance (via fence)

51 m

2 5 m

Common space inside the building blocks

A common garden of 51 x 25 meters, meant for the inhabitants of the upper floors of the buildingsthat do not have a private garden. Access to the common garden by a gate with a width of 4meters. The two small keepers houses intended specifically for social control to prevent thatthe inside of the block becomes a no mans land.



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Cerda grid 1975

In present day Barcelona nothing remains of the idea of 'rurification'. Later developments also leadto a building height Cerdà did not forsee, making the streets darker than he intended. Hecertainly would have had objections against it on the grounds of health.



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Building block in the Cerda Grid 1975

Like in many densely built cities a roof landscape with terraces and lofts has evolved.



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Adolphe Alphand

‘Les promenades de Paris’ 1867-1873

Adolphe Alphand 'les promenades de Paris'

A book in two parts that had a big influence on urban designers. It showed the big dimensions ofParis boulevards, modern sewage and above all the extensive use of urban green. Alphandwas the head of the department of civil works in Paris. He designed several parks and wasresponsible for many ensembles of trees in urban space, including the planting of the Place de'l Etoile that was very important for the spatial effect of this vast square.



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Reinhard Baumeister

‘Stadt-Erweiterungen in technischer

baupolizeilicher und wirthschaftlicher beziehung’ 1876

Reinhard Baumeister

'Stadt-Erweiterungen in technischer, baupolizeilicher und wirtschaftlicher beziehung', 1876

('City extensions in the light of technique, regulations and economy', 1876)

The first systematic handbook on urban design/planning. It contains hardly any illustration. Itshows Baumeister was oriented towards planning.

Baumeister (1833 - 1917) was a professor in engineering at the Karlsruhe Polytechnicum. He heldthe first chair in stedebouw (urban design/planning) in the world.

In the introduction of his book he writes: "Good plans, good basic principles to ensure public

interests, for the rest free unfolding of private forces and preferences: this will ensure that city

extensions will be realized in a more succesfull way than has been the case in many instancesup until now."

Note that this would be a popular statement again in our age.



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Baumeister ‘Stadt-Erweiterungen’ 1876

1. General characteristics of the cityPopulation, dwelling, trafic, regulations, plan

2. Technical aspectsStreets, roads, water, squares, hygiene

3. Public tasks

Authority, building lines, well-being,

disposition of buildings4. Economics

Ground, expropriation, finances, growth

Structure of the book

1. General characteristics of the city.

Population growth, housing, traffic problematics, building regulations, status of the plan2. The most important elements of the plan from a technical perspective.

Streets, roads, water, squares, hygiene

3. The tasks of public services and public works

Legal authority, building lines, fire fighting, public well-being,

disposition and aesthetics of buildings

4. Economics

Ground exploitation and ground expropriation for planning purpouses (a novel idea and a hotlydebated question at the time), finances, economic growth



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Baumeister ‘Stadt-Erweiterungen’ 1876

• Rational approach

• Zoning of functions trade, industy, housing

• Hierarchical road network radial-concentric

• Distinction centre – suburb

• Gouvernment has a role in housing

Main issues of the book

- Baumeister advocates a rational approach of stedebouw (urban design/planning)

Survey should form the basis.The approach should be largely quantitative, based on quantitative models. An

example of this way of thinking: Baumeister compares the flow of traffic in

streets with the flow of water in pipes. Just as the width of pipes can be

calculated from the desired transportation capacity, the width of streets can be

calculated, he writes. This is a truly modernist thought. Modern day computer

programs to calculate traffic are based on this principle.

Stedebouw is considered to be a technical and organizational problem.

- Baumeister advocates the seperation of functions (50 years before it becomes a modernistsdogma). The city should be devided into three districts: one for trade, one for industry and onefor housing.

- Each district should have a hierarchical network of streets consisting of main streets andsecondary streets along with railways, drainage and locations for public buildings andpromenades.

- The traffic of the city as a whole should be radial concentric. This is a good principle because itprovides the shortest possible routes (Cerdà claims that the grid with diagonals provides theshortest routes), it is also the natural way in which cities grow.

- There should be a difference in structure and design between the inner city centre and thesuburbs.

- Baumeister rejects government interference with most aspects of the city except for maininfrastructure. This is in line with the ideas of his time. He makes one exception: governmentshould play a roll in housing. This is certainly against the grain of his time. He argues that

housing is a seperate category and therefore cannot be just a matter of the free market.



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Baumeister Stadt-Erweiterungen’ 1876

• Centre: urban Suburb: rural

• Green

Public space

Public parks, forests

Green around big buildings (free standing)

Not in small streets

Public space

- Difference between centre and suburb: The centre should look urban with straight streets andclosed building blocks. The suburbs should have sinuous streets and a rural characteristic.However the flow of traffic should always have priority in the design of streets.

Green

- In the city, especially that of the future, green is highly desirable. The only exception are ordinarystreets with a width of between 20 and 25 meters. In those streets trees would block light andair and obstruct the visibility of the architecture. Green is important for physical health butBaumeister states that its mental health is still more important, it represents the unification ofman and nature, it calms the nerves in a noisy and busy environment. In this regard he talks ofthe 'poetry of the forrest'. many green squares, public parks and gardens should be provided ina city. Church yards and forests just outside the town could augment the green provisions.

- Baumeister also pays attention to what he calls 'the aesthetic relation between architecture andgreen'. The ground surface of a city should be approached in a natural way. Trees, decorativegardens and grass fields can improve the effect of building enormously. Natural elements aremost effect in spaces and vistas and when they surround architectural groupings and providebackgrounds for them. Although it is not specifically mentioned this seems to be a steptowards the free standing building in a green setting and free flowing green space.



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• Centre: urban Suburb: rural

• Green

Public space

Public parks, forests

Green around big buildings (free standing)

Not in small streets

• StreetsTraffic is primary function

Variation desirable, artistic principles

Streets

Baumeister orders streets under 'technical aspects'. For him traffic clearly is the main function of astreet. However he also pays attention to the esthetic aspect. According to him the most importantesthetic principle for a street is 'unity in diversity'. This should be achieved by the architecture ofthe building facades not by fancy varying of the building line. As esthetics cannot be captured inrules it is useless to make specific esthetic rules. The principle is that 'a good feeling for estheticsand practice make the master'. So for him the craftsmanship of the architect is the most importantcriterium.

He further remarks:

The charm of old cities cannot be reproduced in new towns because the working of time ismissing. However the artistic principles are still useful to enliven the environment.

According to Baumeister the picturesque effect of a street is pleasant and asymmetry forms itsbasis.

The properties of the terrain as a starting point. For instance: irregularities, relief, streams, etc. asa motive to enliven streets with curves and variations.

Other means to enliven streets are prominent buildings that can be the focus of attention,numerous small squares and setting buildings back from the building line (this seems to becontradictory to what he writes about the unity of streets).

Older valuable buildings should be preserved.

Nowhere he mentions the perception of the street or experiencing the spatial environment. It is nottrue that he forgets esthetics, as some later writers claim, but it is clear it plays 'second fiddle' tofunctional considerations.



42


• Squares / parks

Public space

Squares

Illustrations from Baumeisters book.

Baumeister distinguishes between:

- Small squares as widened street intersections. The smalles form being the beveling of streetedges.

- Big squares

- Squares as widened sections of a street.

He emphasizes that squares are no luxury but a necessity for traffic and health. The form shouldbe based on traffic considerations as well as esthetics.

According to Baumeister most public buildings can best be free standing. This is favorable for

traffic, fire safety and good air. In general in plans there should be enough surface for publicspace, this is what gives cities a beautiful appearance, as does making old churches freestanding . He specifically mentions Paris and the Notre Dame in this respect.



43

Camillo Sitte

‘Der Städtebau nach seinen

Künstlerischen Grundsätzen’ 1889

Camillo Sitte 'Der Städtebau'

Translation: 'City design* according to its fundamental artistic principles'

This is arguably the most famous publication in the history of urban design theory. It is certainlythe publication that was most fiercely debated, because it appeared at a time many people feltuneasy about current urban design. Either because they thought it had gone too far orbecause they thought it had not gone far enough.

The book appeared just before the advent of modernism and for them it became the symbol of'wrong urban design'. The symbolism of the book prevailed and most modern architects did noteven bother to read it and still called it 'reactionary', a well known pattern in the case of socalled 'offensive books'. Only in the period of post modernism in the 1980's some started toread it, the first Dutch translation dates from 1991, more than 100 years after the firstpublication. It turned out to be an interesting, pleasant and still relevant book, be it with alimited scope beacuse the emphasis is on esthetics. This is not because Sitte only had an eyefor esthetics. On the contrary, he had planned a second book City design according to its

fundamental scientific and social principles'. This never materialized, leaving critics with aneasy shooting target to project their anti-esthetic anger on (and thus covering up that thereown views where highly esthetic, be it of a different kind).

However even in the text of his first book it becomes clear that Sitte was well aware that urbandesign was about more than making pleasant spaces. For instance he emphasized theimportance of the program, condemning 'empty esthetics'.

* As has been stated before the word 'Städtebau' - 'Stedebouw' in Dutch - can not really be translated because of its

cultural meaning.



44

German: Städtebau

Dutch: Stedebouw

Can not be translated into English



45

German: Städtebau

Dutch: Stedebouw

place building / making

/ constructing

‘making places’

Urban Design and Planning



46

Akademie der Kunsten, Wien

Camillo Sitte (1843 - 1903) was an architect who from 1883 until his death was head of the artacademy of Vienna (illustration above). This was situated in the Ringstrasse zone and that isperhaps why he was so eager to show that its design in his eyes was flawed. He was mostannoyed be the vast and weakly defined spaces with public buildings. His own academy is notthe worst case, because it forms a complete building block in line with other building blocks.



47

Squares from Sittes book

Sitte book contains a great number of plans of squares. He uses this to show that in the middleages and the following periods the high quality of public space was achieved be certain designprinciples.



48

Steenstraat, Brugge

Sittes book had many prints in short succession. In later additions more illustrations were addedas was a part about green in the city. This illustration is often used as it is perhaps the firstexamples of the idea of a picturesque sequence as the basis for the design of public space.More than in the first prints, that only contained plans, it also shows Sitte was concerned aboutthe 3D appearance of public space.



49

Sitte on public space

• Artistic principles basis for design• Experience of space is starting point

• Learning form the past

• Enclosed space, correct scale

• Monuments should be well placed

• No free standing buildings

• Winding streets

Principles Sitte

Sitte opposes what he calls 'the poverty of the modern', of course he means the 19th century urban designand not what would later be called 'modern'. His main objections are that plans are made on the drawingboard as abstract schemas with stiff geometry and random forms. There only purpose often seems to beto divide space into blocks that can be build over profitable. Talking about the normal practice of his timehe states that everything is decided on the basis of project development. Sizes of blocks and streets arepredetermined in some meeting of the developers and policy makers and "..successively the parcelation

plan of the new city quarter can be made by even the lowest ranking administrative employee or courier "

A situation that some planners even today see as desirable.

In contrast to these rejectable habits Sitte poses:

- Public space should be designed according to artistic principles. However this should not be the esthetics ofthe drawing:

- The experience of space must be the starting point. He criticizes Baumeister: His model squares are justtraffic nodes, abstract figures that draw no lessons from the past. The making of the walls is left to chance

by Baumeisters suggestion that it should be allowed that people set there individual building back from thebuilding line (although we have seen that Baumeister is ambiguous in this respect). For Sitte the'perspective effect', as he calls it, is very important. In his case this equals a 'picturesque effect'.

- Studying the qualities of squares form the past should form the basis of the design of new squares.

- Public space should be enclosed space and it should have the correct scale. In particular it should not be toobig.

- It is important that monument are well placed. In the middle ages monuments were never placed in thecentre of the square. According to Sitte this is because they were placed outside the lines of traffic overthe square, a kind of 'natural' position, that also was beneficial for the esthetics.

- Monumental buildings should be part of the walls of squares and should not be free standing.

- Streets should be sinuous for an enclosed effect, for variation and to achieve the effect of a sequence.



50

Sitte on public space

• Artistic principles basis for design• Experience of space is starting point

• Learning form the past

• Enclosed space, correct scale

• Monuments should be well placed

• No free standing buildings

• Winding streets• Coherent plans, related to a program

Continued

Plans should be coherent . No plan without a program ( A kind of 'form follows function'! ). According to Sitte the lack of a program is one of the causes of the lack of substance of urbandesigns.

Sitte explains how a good plan could take shape:

First of all there should be a survey and preliminary research. This should cover probabilitycalculations of the growth of the population, growth of traffic and other statistics. On the basisof this research it should be established how many public buildings are necessary and whatlocations would be best for them. The location of squares could then be based on this. As amatter of course the design should then be made according to artistic principles formulated bySitte. But he adds that also climate should be taken into consideration in the design as shouldbe the irregularities of the terrain. These could provide good motives to make the planinteresting.



51

Sitte on squares

Two main types: 1. depth squares 2. Length squares

Third type: grouped squares

• As enclosed as possible. Not te many entrances.Maximum

size 137 meters

• Width:height of dominant building 1:1 > 1:3

• Irregular form is pleasant, but no strcikt recommandations

possible due to possible visual effects

• Proportions for groundplan that do not work 1:1 or >1:3

• Single axle symmetry could be acceptable, but no slanted

walls or beveled edges.

Sitte on squares

Sitte distinguishes between two main categories of squares:

1. Depth squares. Meaning the emphasis is on the length and the dominant building is on the shortside of the square.

2. Width squares. With the emphasis on the short side and the dominant building on the long side.

A third category are grouped squares, made up of several interlinked square spaces.

- To make a square as enclosed as possible, the number of streets leading to it should be limited.They should not be too wide and should be layed out in such a way that it is never possible tolook along many streets at the same time. Winding streets also are a means of achieving anenclosed effect.

- He notes that the biggest squares in old cities are about 57 by 143 meters and recommends 137meters as maximum size.

- The minimum proportion between the width of a square and the height of the dominant buildingshould 1:1 and the maximum 2:1, depending on the architecture of the building. For instance a

small number of high floors gives the impression a building is smaller than it actually is, changingthe impression of space.

- Sitte points to the fact that many historical squares have irregular forms and still look attractive.However he hesitates to give concrete recommendations on the form because the way a form isexperienced is so much dependent on human perception. - Examples show that the onlyproportions for squares that do not seem to work for the groundplan of a square are 1:1 orproportions of more than 1:3. E with square seems to be more tolerant to an elongated form thanan length square.

- Sitte emphasizes the qualities of an irregular form for squares. He states that squares with a oneaxle symmetry can be acceptable but only if they are very well designed and rectangular oralmost rectangular. Symmetrical squares with slanted walls or beveled edges never work,especially when they approach a triangular form.



52

Illustrations of some of Sittes ideas



53Piazza Santa Maria Novella, Firenze

Pizza Santa Maria Novella, Firenze

(drawing from Sittes book)

Sitte illustrates his point about the impossibility to give absolute recommendations for irregularsquares this with the Piazza Santa Maria Novella in Firenze. Its plan is a pentangle, buteverybody experiences the square as being rectangular with four corners. This is caused bythe fact that we cannot oversee the square at once. If we are on the square and turn aroundthe brain has deformed our first impression in such a way that it is adapted to the image wesee at that moment. A remarkable piece of early perception-psychology by Sitte. based onmodern scientific insights we could also say: the largest part of what we think we see is basedon what we know. Our brain expects a square to be rectangular, so all incoming visualinformation is interpreted in that way.



54

Piazza Santa Maria Novella

Looking towards the dominant building, the famous church by Alberti. Alberti of course being afore runner of Sitte as regards theory.



55



56Wenen, Votivkirche as depicted on the design of the Ringstrasse

Votivkirche alongside the Ringstrasse

as depicted on the design of the Ringstrasse.

Sitte illustrates his ideas by making designs for improvements of the Ringstrasse in Wien. Heconsiders the disposition of the Votivkirche to be a good example of bad urban design. Thechurch drowns in its surroundings, dwarfing it. The space itself is not very pleasant, despitefancy garden design one feels lost.



57Wenen, Votivkirche, present

The present situation

Illustrates Sittes point. He also remarks that making to much public space has the effect of'thinning it out', it leads to a lower density of use and less people per square meter. If this fallsbelow a certain level space becomes 'dead'. An argument still very much valid today.



58

Wenen,

Votivkirche,

redesign

Sitte, 1889

Sittes design to improve the situation

D = Atrium

- Framing the church by means of a square with arcades (Sitte talks about an atrium) makes itlook much better and also more imposing. See the illustrations in the lectures about therenascence and the baroque (Piazza San Pietro) that demonstrate the effect.

- The arcade performs the double function of creating a quiet area, seperated from theRingstrasse, this makes it much more usefull. It could for instance be a quiet green area.

- Old examples show that a square in front of a church has roughly the same surface as thechurch itself. The most imposing and biggest possible square should be maximal about threetimes the ground surface of the church. The vicinity of the big Ringstrasse justifies this largestsize.

- The building blocks G and H should be so high that the buildings behind it cannot be seen fromthe new atrium.

- Situating another building block alongside the church (J) could divide the remaining space insuch a way that two squares of good proportions and dimensions are created. Enclosementcould be achieved by narrowing the passage (as shown on the left above block G) and byusing arches (as shown above 'E'.

- The arcade should be detailed in the style of the church and it should be slender and high to setoff the church.

- The front of the atrium on the side of the Ringstrasse should be designed carefully, it should fitthe architecture of the Ringstrasse as well as that of the neo gothic church. The arch can forma break of style. The narrow passage makes the transition because: 'what can be seen at the

same time must fit together, we don't have to bother about things that cannot be seen

together ', says Sitte

- The remaining space is still large, This can be overcome by placing a sizable monument in it (Kin the drawing).



59

All of Sittes proposals (red)

Projected on to the original design of the Ringstrasse.

All aimed at limiting the vast spaces and making less megalomanic public spaces. The idea is tocreate a kind of 'forum like' area with public spaces for public life with the emphasis on thequalities as places to stay. He even suggests that the tram lines should be diverted to this aim.While in modern days trams are seen as some of the few means of transport compatible withpublic space for pedestrians (See for example the Leidschestraat in Amsterdam) because theyare quiet and clean and have predictable paths, Sitte apparently saw them as representativesof hectic society.

From the point of city design his proposal to 'behead' the Ringstrasse is a bad one. On the levelof a city these kind of structures play a very important role in the mental image. Continuity isparamount to achieve this. He is however right when he remarks that urban design shouldcontribute to the feeling of attachment of citizens to their city by not alienating them form theirenvironment and by being specific for a place.



60

Camillo Sitte

‘Regulating plan’ Marienberg (Ostrava-Maranské Hory), 1904

Camillo Sitte: 'regulating plan' for Marienberg, 1904

Present name of this town: Ostrava-Marianské Hory

'Regulating plan' is the old name for what we would call a zoning plan or a structure plan. TheItalians still use the name 'Piano Regolatore‘

Because of the focus on his book and the fact that he was director of an art school is oftenforgotten that Sitte also made plans himself and was an advisor for other plans. The exampleof Marienberg shows an ambitious plan to turn a small settlement into a town based on artisticprinciples. The design for the church square is by Camilo Sitte and his son Siegfried Sitte.



61

Joseph Stübben

‘Der Städtebau’ 1890

Joseph Stübben 'Der Städtebau" 1890

Joseph Stübben (1845 - 1933) was an architect who became Stadtbaumeister ('city buildingmaster') of Aachen and Köln. His biggest project was the design of the Ringstrasse and theNeustadt (new town) of Köln. He made numerous other plans, including plans for Koblenz(1889) and Kiel (1901) and several buildings, inlcuding the Hohenstaufenbad and the St.Michael church in Köln. He also worked internationally, notably in Belgium.

His book 'Der Städtebau' from 1890 is the first lavishly illustrated handbook on urban design. Infact it was part of a series of books on architecture, but the other books have been more orless forgotten.

The general atmosphere of his book is that of the 'Gutbürgerliche Stadt' (hard to translate, but itmeans something like: the city according to good bourgeois principles'). Stübben has seenenough of the real world in design to withstand the tendency to prescribe 'recipes' andalthough he mentions numerous good examples of good urban design he is of the opinion thatit is hard to transfer them easily to specific situations. In consequence he is a lot less absolute

in his opinions than Baumeister.



62

Joseph Stübben


1. Basic principles

2. Design of the ground plan of the city

3. Implementation of the plan

4. Structures beneath and in the street

5. Green

6. Annexes

CONTENT

Content:

Part 1: basic principles of stedebouw

1. Housing

2. Traffic

3. Public buildings and their position in the city

Part 2: design of the groundplan of the city

1. The ordering of the plan in general

2. The grouping of the parts of the city

3. Building blocks

4. The several types of streets, their width and length

5. Longitudinal and cross sections of streets

6. Streets with a special character

7. Street crossings, widenings, multiple intersections

8. Public squares and their meaning for the plan of the city

9. Public squares from an artistic point of view

10. Water: canals, streams, ponds, etc.

11. Railways and tramways

12. Examples of cities and city quarters

Part 3: Implementation of the plan

1. Functions of the state, the local government and private parties

2. Regulating the freedom to build

3. Expropriation

4. Parcellation

5. Financing city expansions

6. Break through streets and widening of old streets7. The use of public streets by inhabitants for private purposes

8. Building regulations



63

Joseph Stübben


1. Basic principles

2. Design of the ground plan of the city

3. Implementation of the plan

4. Structures beneath and in the street

5. Green

6. Annexes

CONTENT

Part 4: Constructions beneath and on the street

1. Water supply and sewarage

2. Lighting

3. Warmth, energy and telegraph lines

4. Signs and signals

6. Small buildings (street pavilions) for commercial activities, recreationa and traffic

7. Monuments

8. Decorations for festivities

Part 5: green

1. Trees in streets

2. Trees on squares

3. Parks

Annexes: Examples of laws, regulations and guidelines, in particular guidelines for hygiene.



64

Location of

public

buildings

(example)

Location of public buildings

All illustrations in this and the next slides from Stübbens book.

Beauty is an important factor in locating public buildings. Preferably they should be in line with theaxle of a street. In this way they also facilitate orientation in a city. Another consideration is theunobstructed flow of traffic.



65Streets

(examples)

Streets

Left.: The benefits of beveling the edges.

Right: Galleries. Two of the many examples in the book. The galleries in Berlin and Rotterdamboth do not exist any more due to the same historic circumstance.

Stübben uses the following rather curious typology of streets:

• Alleys

• Closes

• Passages and galleries

• Lanes, rows, terraces, places

• Urban 'Lobbies'

• Canals and city former defenses

• Covered secondary lobbies

• Allee (German for wide road with a 'rural' character), Boulevards, Rings, Avenues

• Corso, Cours

• Largo, Viale



66Street width and building height

Street width and building height

These are dependent on traffic, health and esthetics.

Stübben provides lots of measures from a financial point of view but also from an esthetical pointof view. The table above gives the relation between width and height for existing streets inseveral cities.

Practical considerations are:

- Straight streets are good for traffic but bad for climate (wind, dust)

- Sunlight

- The ratio between public space and private grounds. According to Stübben a good average isthat 35% of a plan should be public space, but he ads that this may vary considerable.

Esthetic considerations:

- The width and lenght of a street should be in proportion to each other. For example: a street 50

meters wide should not be longer than 1000 meters. Stübben suggests a ration of 1:25 is anoptimum. When a street is well articulated with several changes in cross section the ratio couldbe as large as 1:40 to 1:50. These proportions only apply to straight streets. In sinuous streetsthe line of view is restricted creating a totally different situation.

In a curved street the concave side is dominant.

- He does not write about the architecture along side the street.



67

L e n g t h s e c t i o n s o f s t r e e t s ( e x a m p l e )

Development of the length of streets

Again a lot of practical considerations such as maximum inclines for pedestrians and carriages,etc.

Esthetical considerations:

- According Stübben concave longitudinal profiles provide the most beautiful results. He is almostlyrical about the effect of lanterns in these type of streets.

- A concave profile is ugly because the streets seems to disappeare into thin air. This can becorrected by making a bend at the top to create an enclosed effect or by situating a monumentat the highest point.



68

C o r r e c t i e o p t i s v h p r o b l e e m

d o o r m o n u m e n t

Correction by a monument at the highest point

Examples of one of Stübbens own designs in Köln.



69

Cross sections

Stübben provides sections of many streets all over the world, however these sections do notinclude the height of the buildings. This could suggest either that Stübben only was interestedin use (although he mentions esthetics), or that he thought that for experiencing the crosssection the lower part of the buildings was the determining factor (because people in a streettend to look ahead and not in the air). There could also have been the practical reason that hegot his measures from existing drawings that had no sections.



70Trappen en

hellingen

Stairs and inclines



71

Crossings and streed widenings

Crossings and street widenings

Left: small squares at cstreet rossings by making them slighly wider. afb pag 130

Right: widenings. Stübben remarks that many squares are no more than widenings in streets. Hementions the Schwarzenberg Platz in Wien as an example. He is right that the roads aredominant in this square but it was mend to be a baroque type of classic square. The fact thatthis did not work out very well does not make it a good example. Here we see a problem oftenassociated with examples. The fact that something exists can be no justification to make thesame mistake, it just means the designer was not expelled, imprisoned or executed. Studentstend to forget this when the use examples to justify their designs.



72

Squares

• Traffic squares

• Functional squares

• Garden squares

• Architectural squares

– Forecourts

– Squares with buildings

– Squares surrounded by buildings

– Monument squares

– Double squares

Separate chapter ‘Artistical aspects’

Public squares and their meaning in the groundplan of the city.

Stübben distinguishes between:

-Traffic squares. Squares where most of the surface is empty to facilitate traffic. This in contrastwith squares where traffic is kept out.

-Functional squares, meant for markets, exhibitions, festivities, etc.

-Garden squares. English squares would fall into this category.

-Architectural squares with the sub categories:

-Fore courts

-Squares with buildings on them (for classical theoristst this would be acontradictio intermini)

-Squares surrounded by buildings designed as a whole. This category -containsmost famous classical squares

-Monument squares-Double squares

He devotes a paragraph to each category with many examples and compares the sizes ofdifferent squares. The artistic aspects are covered by a seperate paragraph.



73

Voorbeelden ‘tuinpleinen’

Example: some garden squares

With designs of flower beds typical for the late 19th century. The style is sometimes referred to as'Biedemeyer'. In Köln, Stübbens work environment for many years, an example of this type ofgarden has been preserved, named the 'Flora'.



74

Artistic aspects of squares

• A square should be enclosed• A square should form a unity

• Dimension based on functions

• Proportions based on optical principles

• Monumental buildings freestanding

• A lot of attention for the furnishing of the

square

Kunstzinnige aspecten:

Public squares are an important artistic assignment according to Stübben. he devotes a seperate chapterto the subject.

He refers to classical examples and classical design principles and to Meartens theory (covered in the

lecture about the Baroque). Sittes book was publicized only one year earlier. Stübben refers to it,calling Sittes proposals for Vienna 'very interesting' but unrealistic from a functional point of view. AlsoStübben is of the opinion that medieval squares are too small for modern cities. Besides that amedieval atmosphere cannot be imitated artificially. They do however show that strict unity is notnecessary per se. He does support the view that squares should be sufficiently enclosed, on paperthat is, because many of the examples in his book are very open. This could be due to the idea that amultitude of examples is better than few good examples, but of course there can be discussion aboutwhat is 'adequately enclosed'.

The form of a square should be such that it can be experienced as a unity. The dimensions of a squarefollow from its function but the height of its walls must be based on artistic considerations.

It is a good idea to enlarge squares and to make monumental buildings free standing. According to

Stübben free standing monumental buildings where also a medieval ideal, they just lacked the judicialand financial means to accomplish it.

The furnishing of a square is very important. An empty square space is like a room without furniture anddecoration. Stübben destinguishes between:

-'domestic furniture': lanterns, publication pillars, newspaper stands.

-'art objects'; fountains, decorative masts, decorative columns, statues.

-'elements for weell being': plants, flowers, trees.

He also emphasizes: The surface of a square should preferably be concave. The zoning of the surface ofa square is of the utmost importance. Large undefined areas of pavement should be avoided, thereshould be divisions the design of these should be playful and interesting combining geometry, art and

nature. The totality of street furnishing should not be a random collection randomly placed, but it mustalso not be of 'military' strictness



75

Under ground

In this and the next illustrations examples of the fitting out and furnishing of streets from Stübbensbook. The amazing array makes for interesting reading.

This section of Holborn Viaduct in London shows how the technique of cities had evolved duringthe 19th century leading to a complex underground structure. Within a few years after thepublication of Stübbens book the complexity was raised to a further level by the advent ofelectricity cables, telegraph cables, overhead wiring for trams and in big cities undergroundrailways and subways (in the English meaning of the word).



76

Pavement

Examples of standard paving and decorative paving.



77

Traffic islands, pedestrian bridges



78

Furnishing

Public drinking trenches for animals

UrinoirsToilet house with a first class and second class department



79

Candle lanterns, Gas lanterns, Electric lanterns (not with light bulbs but so called 'carbon lightbow' lamps)



80

Clock and weather station

Fire alarms

Dust bins



81

Signs

Advertizing pillars

Publishing boards



82

Stalls for newspapers, magazines. lemonade, mineral water, fruit, pastry, sigars.

Waiting booths for taxidrivers, bus passengers and boat passengers.



83

Ornamental planting, tree root covers, separations,.

Public benches



84

Planting and parks

Get a lot of attention.



85

Urban railroads and tramways

Stübben presents the newest high tech developments of his time as well as futuristic ideas, wealready saw the pedestrian bridges and the electric lanterns. Stübbens publication in a waystarts a whole line of futuristic ideas about techological developments for cities that still is soappealing to many

The hightech hanging monorails that looked promising only materialized in the city of Wuppertal.



86

19th century street furnishing

Still to be found in modern public space



87

19th century futurism

The electric Schwebebahn ('Hovering monorail'). Still the core of inner city public transport inWuppertal.

Left: one historic train has been preserved for special occasions. Right:a modern train.

The innovative steel construction with a new type of beam was designed by the famous engineerRiepel. The railway as such was the brain child of engineer Eugen Langen. In the time therewere numerous designs for comparable unconventional new forms of urban transport, but therailway in Wuppertal was the only one realized.

Compared to other systems Langens idea is very clever. The carriages ride on a single overheadrail and can swing freely and thus have an automatic compensation of centrifugal force.Something that in conventional trains can only be achieved by very complex computercontrolled tilting systems. Because of the swinging action a ride in the Schwebebahn is a

lovely experience that rivals theme park attractions. Langens system makes it impossible forthe trains to leave the rails and plunge into the deep. The down side is the steel structurewhich is expensive to maintain, but probably still cheaper than an underground railway.



88

Albert Erich Brinckmann

‘Platz und Monument’ 1908

Albert Erich Brinckmann 'Platz und monument', 1908

'Platz und Monument: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Ästhetik der Stadtbaukunst in neuererZeit'.

(Translation: 'Square and monument: research into the history and ethetics of urban design in recentcenturies'.)

This book is rooted in the 19th century but marks a transition to the 20th century. It is arguably one ofthe more interesting books on urban design ever published. The title could be a bit misleading, butafter having made a trip to the renascence and baroque in this course we know that monuments inthese periods are not just decoration. The book is really about the spatial qualities of squares.Brinckmann uses historical examples to develop his arguments.

Albert Erich Brinckmann (1881 - 1958) was an art historian. He became professor in Urban Design in

Karlruhe in 1912, the same chair as is his predecessor Reinhard Baumeister, but their approach isvery different. From 1921 to 1935 he was a profeesor in Berlin and from 1935 - 1946 in Frankfurtam Main.

Around the time Brinckmann wrote his book the division between engineering and architecture waswidening rapidly. This is reflected in the fact that chairs in urban design/planning were mainlyestablished at technical universities. Brinckmann is not opposed to a modern approach but herejects urban design from behind the drawing board by people who do know nothing about themaking of meaningful and pleasant spaces en the reduction of esthetics to what he calls'architectural wall paper for dead artifacts'. Urban design has been reduced to schemas, figures onpaper, nonsense in reality, 'worthless games on paper '.



89

Brinckmann

• Urban design is the highest level of

architecture (no architecture without urban design)

• Urban design, architecture and art should be

integrated

• Carefull choices, no exageration

The core of Brinckmans ideas

-Stedebouw (Urban design/planning) is the highest level of architecture. There is no architecturewithout an environment (even if it claims to be 'placeless') so there should be no architecturewithout stedebouw.

-Stedebouw, architecture and art should be integrated. An urban environment can best bedesigned as a unity. This is a mutual relation: when designing a building the relation with theenvironment is of primary importance. Fitting out and furnishing the environment is just asimportant. Brinckman egrees with Patte in this respect: 'One can imagine how much would he

(Patte) be appaled by a street in a modern big city with its tangle advertisements, numerous

wires, iron masts, busstop signs, advertizing pillars, stalls, shabby trees and when possible

high level and floating railroads that choke public space'

- Designing public space means making careful choices and no overabundance. 'The beauty of a

city is not dependent on the number of special buildings but on their location. With just a few

but well situated buildings one can improve the impression a city makes considerably '(comment: this could be called a plea for 'strategic' urban design or strategic interventions. The

idea also concures with the results of research that show that people only remember a very

limited set of elements of a city ),. He further remarks; 'Every effect is an effect in comparison.

This results from the situation. Nothing is gained by random positioning or by randomly

building somewhere, all depends on the way one does this'



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Brinckmann

• Urban design is the highest level of

architecture (no architecture without urban design)

• Urban design, architecture and art should be

integrated

• Carefull choices, no exageration

• ‘Sence of space’ is fundamental

• Form and function should go hand in hand• Contemporary approach required

- Fundamental for each period in history is what Brinckmann call the 'sense of space'. He definesthis as a 'psychophysical' phenomena, a combination of bodily and spiritual state. (comment:

this willingly or unintentionally refers to the theories of phenomenology by Edmund Husserl,

1859 - 1938 ). Brinckmann writes: 'The primaire of all architectural design is the sense of spacethat in turn has its origins in the fact that humans have a certain bodily experience. Structure,

articulation and details are onlt there to visualize that feeling in material and by artfull creation'It is useless to worry about ornament and style if one does not understand the sense of spacethat is behind it: 'The relation between sense of space and form is as that between thinking

and speaking: one can only express one self poorly in a foreign language is one is not able to

think in that language'.

- Architecture and stedebouw should aim at making wholes that combine beauty and usefulness.From and function should go together. Brinckmann opposes an approach that makes formdominant to function and also the idea that form should be the expression of ratio. 'Ratio, asthe vehicle and the result of abstract thinking, can never be given an artistic and visible form,

still by some it is considered to be the guideline for architecture and decoration'. This could beseen as an argument against the idea of 'form follows function', just as he opposes theopposite.

- Architecture in our time demands an approach that is fit for our time. Brinckman argues: peoplecopy the forms of the antique period but make no effort to investigate their backgrounds andthe way their prepositions can be translated into modern time. He writes 'Some theoretics

argue that to make Paris more beautiful one only has to demolish it completely '. He meant ofcourse the classicistic theoretics of his time, little did he know that a few years later moderntheoretics would claim the same, despite the fact that they claimed to be 'completely different'from their predecessors.



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Brinckmann

• Balance between order and chaos

• Good architecture can be a compensation of

boring urban design

• Urban design = sculpturing ‘housing material’

• Historc examples must be seen in relation to

their contemporary context

Other principles

In detail

In addition to the main points of his Brinckmann describes several principles.

- In a design there must be a balance between order and chaos. A certain form of regularity isnecessary to achieve monumentality (he opposes the idea of pure 'picturesque' design). Onthe other hand too much order is not good, a certain amount of chaos is refreshing.

- Good architecture can counter dull street patterns and weak squares. This could also betranslated in: architecture is just as important as the disposition of buildings, urban designdoes not stop at determining building masses.

- Brinckmann states 'Urban design means: designing with the house material ' The housedetermines the physiognomy of streets and cities, it is the 'material' of urban design.(comment: by the look of it this is a remarkable statement from somebody who focuses on the

design of public space on the other hand it could be translated into: you need a lot of built up

area or buildings to form good public space. Later modernists also advocated that the houses

where the 'material' of urban design, but they meant it in a different way: the disposition of the

houses was the prime activity, public space was the space left over.)

- One should learn from history, however the interpretation of urban design from the past shouldbe related to the specific period it was created. We should not project the present onto thepast.



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Brinckmann

• Sitte projects the present on to the past

• Provides only ‘recepies’ leading to ‘schemes’

• Reduces urban design to building décors

• What is seen as ‘pictoresque’ varies over time

Critical comment on Sitte

Brinckmann seriously criticizes Sitte

Following the good habits of debate Brinckmann praises Sitte for opening a discussion on thespatial qualities of urban design opposing 'designs from the drawingboard' that Brinckman alsorejects.

He then continues with some serious critic on Sittes ideas.

• Sitte projects modern thoughts onto the past. In the middle ages people did not think in termsof picturesque images.

• Sitte just provides a few 'recipies' for urban design without clear fundamental insights. He isnot better than the 'schematistst', he just opposes his own schema to that of the others. This isexacly the reason why Brinckmann does not want to make a 'book of examples' but looks for adeeper understanding of the historical examples. (Comment: to the advantage of Sitte onecould say: making designs is putting ones neck out, someone hás to do the dirty work and itwill always be fallible, but at least it gives something concrete to talk about. It is so mucheasier the theorize).

• Sitte is in favor of a kind of urban design that reminds of theatre effects, but urban designshould not be 'window dressing'. (comment: this is of course exact what happens in recentfake nostalgic plans. However it is a point of discussion if this is a bad thing per se).

• The opinion on what is 'picturesque' varies over time. Architecture should aim at permanence.



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Brinckmann

• Learning from the past

• Prefers closed city image

Has in common with traditionalists

Has in common with modernistst

• Urban design = highest level of architecture

• ‘Space’ is the core of design

• Rejects 19th

century architecture• Emphasis the relation between form and

function, sees housing as ‘base material’

Position

Brinckmanns ideas are positioned between traditionalism* and modernism.

He has in common with traditionalists

Learning form the past

A preference for enclosed city spaces and an enclose city image. Not in favor of the 'garden city'.

He has in common with modernistst**

Urban design is the highest level of architecture it is its fulfillment. This is certainly not a normalviewpoint at the time, only a small group of avant garde architects share this vision.

'Space' and making spaces is the core of architecture and art.

He rejects the common practice in 19th century architecture and urban design.

An approached fit for our own time is desirable

Emphasizing the relation between form and function and the importance of the 'house material'.

* In this context traditionalism means: architects working according the classic ideas about public space: enclosed publicspace of certain proportions, closed building blocks, city structures designed to some sort of form principle(geometric, symmetric, picturesque), certain building typologies based on either classical or medieval ideas or atleast with facades where stone dominates.

** In this context: the architects of the so called 'modern movement in architecture' from about 1920-1970, with earlystarters around 1910.



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Brinckmann

Differs from traditionalists ánd modernists

• Urban design may not be a diagram

• Neither form nor function may be dominant.

Differences with traditionalists as well as modernists

Urban design may not be a diagram. The traditionalistst made 2-D diagrams that looked fancy onpaper but were just abstract schemes. Modernistst added 3-D but only made 3-D schemas:the buildings as abstracts blocks from a toy box placed on abstract drawings. For bothtraditionalists and modernists experiencing the environment played no role in the design. ForBrinckmann this was one of the cores of urban design.

Brinckmann rejects the dominance of either form or function. Theay ar just as important and donot follow from each other. Traditionalists only talked about form, often related to creatingvalue in property development. The modernists postulated 'form follows function' and in themean time made random forms that followed their personal tastes.

Perhaps because of his in between position Brinckmanns works did not attract overwhelmingattention at his time, although he was regarded by many enlightened modern architects. It alsowas a bit lost in time due to the forceful acting of the modern movement. Propagating some

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7W580 19th Century Theory