7 New QC Tools

7/28/2019 7 New QC Tools

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7 ADVANCED QC TOOLS

1 Introduction to 7-Advanced QC Tools

The seven advanced tools of quality management or the New Seven is a

collection of tools put together by a set of J apanese quality professionals.Many of the tools were already known to managers in other disciplines,sometimes by names different from what we will see in this book. Forinstance, Arrow Diagram, was known to engineers and project managers bynames like PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) or CMP(Critical Mean Path). Another tool in this set PDPC (Process DecisionProgramme Chart) has been used in operations research. The seven toolswe will see are :

1. Relations diagram

2. Tree diagram3. Arrow diagram

4. Affinity diagram

5. Matrix diagram

6. Matrix data analysis diagram

7. Process decision programme chart.

These tools, unlike SPC tools are qualitative tools. Most of these tools do not

involve the use of numerical data. As the names suggest they are diagramsand charts which arrange available information in a visual form that helpsmanagers in making sound decisions. Like all management tools these are

judgmental tools. Managers are often called upon to make decisions basedon their judgement with help of incomplete information or on subjectiveissues. Such decisions require discussions among members of crossfunctional teams. Team work and techniques like brainstorming are veryessential for best results with such tools.

2 Relations Diagram

Purpose

The purpose of relations diagram is to generate a visual representation of therelations between an effect and its causes as well as the interrelationshipbetween the causes in complex problems.

Structure

As mentioned in the opening paragraph of the chapter, the structure ofrelations diagram is not very rigid; it is quite flexible. Only thing fixed aboutthe diagram is a bold bordered rectangle in which the effect is written. The

causes are entered in light rectangles and lines are drawn to show relationbetween the rectangles. The lines have arrows at one end showing which is


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the cause and which is the effect - the arrow always leading from the causeto the effect. The most common shape the diagram takes has the effect atthe centre, with immediate causes surrounding it and secondary and tertiarycauses as outer layers. Diagram 1 shows one such representation.

Relations Diagram - Common Structure

Diagram 1

The most common structure of relations diagram seen in diagram 1, wherethe effect is placed at the centre and the causes surround it, is calledFocused Counterpoint type. When the interrelations between the immediatecauses is more widespread, it may be difficult to connect the rectangleslocated on either side of the effect. In such cases the effect may be placed onthe top or the left hand side of the diagram and causes below or to the right ofthe effect. The diagram then resembles organisation charts. The flow of


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arrows in such a diagram is in only one direction bottom to top or right to left.Diagram 2 shows a Unidirectional type of structure.

Relations Diagram - Unidirectional Structure

Diagram 2

These two diagrams have shown how the structure of relations diagram isextremely flexible. The shape depends on the nature and extent ofinterrelations between various causes. The team is free to arrange therectangles with causes in any convenient shape. If need be, the shape isrecast with rearrangement of the causes for ease of connecting therectangles.

Procedure

To prepare a relations diagram, there is a need for a large number of causes.No single individual can generate an exhaustive list of causes. Hence the toolgives best results when it is used in a group. The group must brainstorm thesubject to get the maximum number of causes. The steps in the preparationof a relations diagram are :

1. Decide the effect or the problem for which causes are to be found.Write is in the centre of the flip chart or a board and enclose it in a darkbordered rectangle. Discuss the subject and confirm the effect.


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2. Brainstorm to identify the immediate causes for the effect first. Enterthese in rectangles around the central dark rectangle. Take care toplace causes likely to be related to one another in adjacent positions.It is quite possible that the locations of the causes may have to bechanged as one progresses. Hence a white board is preferable to a

flip chart for this exercise. If a flip chart is used, the causes may bewritten on post-it pads and stuck on the chart so that their location canbe changed easily.

3. Connect these immediate causes to the effect by connecting therectangles of the causes to that of the effect with a line with an arrowpointing towards the effect. Explore the cause and effect relationshipamong the immediate causes and connect them, keeping in mind thatthe arrow always points to an effect.

4. Taking each of these immediate causes as an effect, brainstorm to findcauses for them one by one. The key question for identifying causes is

why ?. Keep asking the question till the root causes are identified forthe immediate, secondary and tertiary causes.

5. Explore the relationship between all the causes and connect therectangles as in step-3. Show as many relations among differentcauses as possible. A large number of routes leading to the same rootcauses provides an indication that the root cause may be an importantcontributor to the problem.

6. Brainstorm to find the more important root causes and more prominentlinks leading to the effect. Mark these by making the rectangles andthe connecting lines darker.

7. If necessary, rearrange the rectangles in such a way that theconnecting lines are short and the diagram compact.

8. Provide a suitable title to the diagram.

Appl ications

Relations diagram can be applied to explore cause and effect relationships,especially in complex situations where the causes are likely to be mutuallyrelated. The most common use is in problem solving to identify multipleinterrelated causes. The output of the tool is a list of root causes for the

problem with some indication of their relative importance. The output has tobe considered as only an indication of the relative importance of the causes.Data has to be collected to confirm or reject the conclusions arrived at the endof the session. Priority of corrective actions to eliminate the causes should bebased on the data collected, not on output of relations diagram. The output ofrelations diagram is based on the perception of the members of the groupbrainstorming the issue; it needs to be supported by facts. While the output isimportant as it points a direction to data collection efforts, it is no substitute forfacts and data.


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Poor Job Satisfaction

Low Future

Prospects

HIGH TURNOVER

Lure of Competition

Dissatisf.

Compensation

Unsatisf.

Work Env.

An Example of a Relat ions Diagram

3 Af fini ty Diagram

Purpose

The purpose of an affinity diagram is to provide a visual representation ofgrouping of a large number of ideas or factors or requirements into logicalsets of related items to help one organise action plans in a systematicmanner.

Procedure

The steps in the procedure for preparing an affinity diagram are :

1. Decide the subject or the topic

2. Generate a large number of ideas through brainstorming

3. Decide the number of groups and their titles. Create a card for eachgroup. Enter the title of the group at the top of the card.

4. Distribute all the ideas among the cards. If necessary, create newcards for additional groups.

5. Arrange the cards according to the relationship between the groups.

6. Give a name to the affinity diagram.


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Appl ications

The structure and the procedure for affinity diagram would have shown howsimple the tool is. Its simplicity makes it easy to combine it with other toolsand put it to a wide variety of applications. For instance, it can be combined

with a cause-and-effect diagram or a relations diagram to identify and regroupcauses for a problem or it can be combined with a tree diagram to categorisepossible solutions. Thus it can assist in problem solving. It can be used togroup customer requirements in a complex product and can help one todesign a product with characteristics and features that would satisfy anddelight customers. It can be used to categorise actions in an implementationplan leading to a rationalised distribution of responsibility. In fact the tool canbe used to break up any complex problem or task into smaller more easilymanageable bits. Someone has asked a question - How do you eat a whale? which has an obvious answer -A mouthful at a time. Another similar setof a question and an answer is - How to eat an elephant - slice by slice.

Well affinity diagram is a tool that helps to break up a whale into convenientmouthfuls or an elephant into manageable slices. Its simplicity makes it avery widely applicable tool.

Creating Values

a. Create visionb. Quality policyc. Pers. Commitd. Pers. Involvee. Value systemf. Mission state

Creating Culture

p Transformations Reward & Recog.t Recog. Functionsx Employee Partic.dd Celebrations

Strategic Planning

b Select elementsc Long-tern goalsf Prioritiesy Self Assessmentz Imp. Objectivescc Direction

Communication

e Quality policym Commitmentaa Goals & objectivesgg Success stories

Training

k All employeesw Identify needsbb Need basedhh Evaluate

ii Improve

Organisation Implementation

j Project Teamsq Proj. progressr Remove obstaclesv Progress at Div.

/Loc.ee Revise plans

g Supportive Org.h Infrastructurei Resourcesu Division/Loc.

Committees

Distribution of Ideas among Groups

An Example of an Aff in ity Diagram


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4 Tree Diagram

Purpose

The purpose of the tree diagram is to explore ways and means to achieve an

objective, develop a list of alternate means to reach the desired situation in asequential order and to present them in a visual form.

Procedure

This tool like other tools in the new seven is a group tool. A brainstormingsession is necessary to collect a large number of ideas for the means toachieve the objective. The rules of brainstorming should be observed to getthe best results from the tool. The steps in the procedure to develop a treediagram are :

1. Identify a high priority problem that needs to be solved at the earliest.Prepare an objective statement describing the desired situation or thetarget solution.

2. Decide the appropriate form of the diagram - cascade or tree as well asdirection of flow after a brief discussion. Place the target solution in thedark rectangle.

3. Brainstorm to identify the primary means to achieve the objective. Arrangethem in an appropriate order keeping in mind the likely interrelationsbetween them and place them in rectangles at the first level.

4. For each of the primary means, identify secondary means which would benecessary to attain those means. Arrange them in next level boxes.

5. Identify tertiary means required to attain each of the secondary means andplace them in a proper order in the next level boxes.

6. Continue the process till the group feels that the end of the line has beenreached.

7. If a lower level means is required to attain two higher level means, it maybe connected to both. Rearrange the boxes if necessary to make thispossible. Use of POST-IT pads can make such a rearrangement simple.

8. Brainstorm to reach a consensus on the relative importance of the lastlevel means to priorities action.

9. Give a suitable title to the diagram.


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Appl ication

The most important application of the tree diagram is for devising solutions forproblems. It helps one to develop a systematic step by step strategy toachieve an objective. It is also useful in monitoring the implementation of

solutions by taking care of accomplishment of means at different levels.

OpenImproveHealth Clinic

Medical Medical

Tree Diagram Tree Form

Frequent / long toursPoor Pay

Internal Poor working environmentPoor career prospectusInsensitive to personal problems.

Causes for Better payResignation Better career prospects

External Reputed organizationBetter benefitsBetter working conditions

Nearer to homePersonal Family problems

Large financial commitments

Tree diagram showing causes for resignation from anorganization.

CollegeDegree

Pass

Entrance

Expert

Coaching

Improving Health Standards in the Village

Tree Diagram - Cascade FormOrganise

Funds


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5 Matrix Diagram

Purpose

The purpose of a matrix diagram is to explore the existence and the extent ofrelations between individual items in two sets of factors or features orcharacteristics and express them in a symbolic form that is easy tounderstand. The purpose for which the tool is most frequently used is tounderstand the relation between customer expectations as expressed by thecustomers and product characteristics as designed, manufactured and testedby the manufacturer.

Procedure

The steps in the procedure to prepare a matrix diagram are :

1. Decide the two sets of factors for which relations are required to beclarified. Call the set of the main factors features and the set of factorsdependent on it counterpart characteristics or characteristics.

2. Divide the features into primary, secondary and tertiary features.

3. Divide the characteristics into primary, secondary and tertiarycharacteristics.

4. Place the features vertically on the left hand side of the matrix andcharacteristics horizontally on top of the matrix.

5. Enter the importance of the features on the column after that for thetertiary features.

6. In the main body of the matrix, place symbols at the squares denoting therelationship between the feature and the characteristic meeting at theintersection. The symbols to be used are :

- Strong relationship

- Medium relationship

- Weak relationship

z

{

In case there is no relation between the concerned feature andcharacteristic, leave the square blank to indicate no relation. Therelationship should be based on data available with the team or on theresults of a brainstorming session which must be confirmed bycollecting necessary data.

7. Title the diagram suitably.


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Appl ications

Matrix diagram, being a very simple table showing relations betweenindividual items in two sets of factors, can be put to a wide variety of uses.

The symbolic representation of the relationship makes the diagram so mucheasier to understand as compared to a table with a lot of figures. Let us seesome of the possible applications of a matrix diagram.

Matrix diagram can be used to solve problems by arranging data in such away that the relations between relevant factors are brought into sharp focus.It can be used to understand relations between customer satisfaction andproduct characteristics, between complaints and product groups, betweencomplaints and geographical regions, between a products performance in themarket and promotional inputs on it and so on. Once the relations betweenindividual items in sets of factors are clearly understood and agreed upon, it

becomes easy to solve problems and to plan and implement solutionssystematically.

There is no limit to the use of the tool. The unlimited possibility of theapplication of the tool is proved by a couple of unusual examples. A book onQC tools written by J apanese authors gives an example where the tool wasused to describe the relations between male and female members of the staffin an office. A recent article in a magazine brought out by an NBFC (NonBanking Finance Company) for the benefit of investors used the matrixdiagram to depict the vulnerability of different industries. The diagramprovides relation between 24 industries from Aluminium and Automobiles totyres and yarn with half a dozen parameters such as over-capacity, demandrecession, cheap imports etc. The matrix had symbols indicating high,moderate, slight or no vulnerability of the industry on that parameter. Theonly difference is that the symbols used were not the same as thoseconventionally used in a matrix diagram.

The most important application of matrix diagram is in clarifying relationsbetween individual features of customer requirements and individual productcharacteristics. Thus the tool enables one to translate customer expectationsinto technical specifications accurately. In other words it helps one develop a

product specification that will satisfy customer expectations. Its use can beextended to clarify the relationship between product characteristics on oneside and product formulation and process parameters on the other side. Inother words it can be used to generate a process specification that wouldensure compliance to the requirements of a product specification. It can beused to develop specification requirements for inputs to a process by studyingtheir relation to the output requirements.


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6 Matrix Data Analysis DiagramPurpose

The purpose of matrix data analysis diagram is to present numerical dataabout two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyse it to get numericaloutput. The factors most often are products and product characteristics. Thepurpose then is to analyse the data on several characteristics for a number ofproducts and use the information to arrive at optimum values for thecharacteristics for a new product or to decide the strong points of a productand use the information for designing a strategy for the promotion of theproduct.

Procedure

The procedure for creating a matrix data analysis diagram consists of thefollowing steps :

1. Decide the two factors whose relations are to be analysed.

2. Check the number of individual items in the two factors.

3. Prepare a matrix to accommodate all the items of the two factors.

4. Enter numerical data in the matrix.

5. Give the diagram a suitable title.

Appl ications

The most common application of matrix data analysis diagram is to decide thedesired product characteristics of a new product based on the analysis ofproduct characteristics of similar products in the market and the intendedpositioning of the new product. For instance the characteristics of a toilet


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Characteristics P

S

T

Physical Tests

Descrip tion Properties Foam Height Det

Col Cla Per SpGr Visc Ini Fin Den Typ

Appearance

Visual Col 1

Cla. 1

Perceived Perf. 2

Str. 2

Functional

Lathe

r

Cop. 3

Dense 2

Dur. 1

Effect

CleanHair

3 ShinyHair

2

NoTang

3

Misc

.

Safe

Eyes 3

Hair 3

Features

P S T

Key : - Strong - Medium - WeakExample of Matrix Diagram Shampoo Features and characteristics


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Primary Secondary Tertiary ImportanceTargetValue

W X Y Z

A

p

p

e

a

r

Visual Colour 1 5 4 5 4 3

Clarity 1 4 3 4 5 4

Perceived Perfume 2 5 5 3 2 4

Strength 2 5 4 4 4 3

F

u

n

c

t

i

o

n

a

l

Lather Copious 3 4 3 4 4 5

Dense 2 5 5 3 4 4

Durable 1 4 3 3 5 2

Effect Clean Hair 3 5 4 2 3 2

Shiny Hair 2 5 5 2 4 5

No Tangles 3 4 3 4 3 5

Misc.

Safe On Eyes 3 5 4 5 5 4

On Hair 3 5 5 4 3 2

Where W denotes our company and X, Y & Z are competitors.

Example of a Matrix Data Analysis Diagram


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soap for customers with normal skin would be somewhere in between thosefor a soap for dry skin and a soap for oily skin. A cosmetic product forgrowing children would have characteristics between those of a babycosmetic and an adult cosmetic. By collecting data on the product

characteristics of related products and placing them in a matrix data analysisdiagram, one can decide the desired characteristics of the proposed productdepending on target group of customers for the new product.

Analysis of the data can also be used to identify the strongest characteristicsof an existing product to decide its promotional inputs. The tool can also beused to study the causes of customer complaints. It can also be used todetermine process parameters to achieve desired product characteristics.

The tool can be very useful in compiling data obtained on the analysis ofcompetitive products with a view to develop a product better than thecompetition or to devise a marketing strategy for the product based on its

strengths.

7 Process Decision Programme Chart

Purpose

The purpose of process decision programme chart is to prepare for abnormaloccurrences with low probability which may otherwise be overlooked and topresent the occurrences as well as the necessary countermeasures to guardagainst such occurrences in the form of a visual chart. The tool forces one to

think of the possible obstacles in the smooth progress of a process or aproject and then find ways and means to surmount those obstacles to ensurethe successful and timely completion of the process or the project. Thus thetool helps one to prepare a contingency plan to achieve the objective ifadverse events occur.

Procedure

The steps in the preparation of a process decision programme chart are :

1. Prepare a normal flowchart of the process with all expected events as

steps in the chart.

2. Consider the possibility of the process not going as per the plan due to anyabnormal, though less probable, occurrences.

3. Show these occurrences on the flowchart through branching at appropriatelocations.

4. Consider how the abnormal occurrence will affect the process and searchfor ways and means to counter the effect.

5. Show these countermeasures in rectangles connecting the correspondingabnormal occurrence on one side and the process objective or the goal on

the other.


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6. Give a suitable title to the diagram.

Steps 2 and 4 require totally different type of thinking and hence the teammust be prepared to think on appropriate lines. One needs to put on differentthinking hats while brainstorming steps 2 and 4 and the facilitator must

inform all members about it. As suggested by Dr. Edward De Bono in hisbook Six Thinking Hats the correct thinking hats for steps 2 and 4 are blackand yellow which respectively encourage negative logical and positivelogical thinking.

Appl ications

The tool has the widest range of applications as it can be used for a range ofactivities from simple ones like a game of bridge or reaching railway station orairport in time to catch a train or a plane to complex processes or projects. Infact if can be applied to all processes to ensure their success by

systematically minimising the untoward effect of unexpected adverseoccurrences. Through the process of brainstorming for possible adverseoccurrences and for measures to counter them, one assures the success ofthe process even if such events do occur. The tool can be used to preventproblems by identifying opportunities for error and devising measures to avoidfailure. It can be used during the implementation of solutions for predictingresistance and for planning measures to overcome the resistance.


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Get A Steady

Job

May Lose

The Job

Start Saving

Early

Develop Alt.

Skills

Invest in

Housing

Savings Lost

To Illness

Loss of

Property

Invest for

Long-Term

Medical

Insurance

Householder

Insurance

Manage

Investments

Provide Secure

Future

Losses Due to

Bad Inv.

Early

DemiseGet Advice on

Portfolio

Life

Insurance

An Example of PDPC - Providing Secure Future for Dependents


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8 Arrow Diagram

Purpose

The purpose of an arrow diagram is to create a visual presentation of thesteps of a process or tasks necessary to complete a project with specialemphasis on the time taken for these activities. The diagram provides a clearunderstanding of the schedule of various steps in the process which helps oneto monitor the process for ensuring its completion on time.

Procedure

The steps for preparing an arrow diagram are :

1. List all tasks or activities that need to be accomplished before thecompletion of the process or the project.

2. Decide which steps are undertaken in series and which steps can be run inparallel.

3. Arrange the activities in a proper sequence.

4. Prepare Event Nodes at the completion of steps and number them.Where the process is bifurcating into two or more parallel streams, morelines will flow from a node and where the parallel streams are merging, twoor more steps will lead to a node.

5. Write the description of the step on top of the line or to the left of the line.Decide the time required for completing each step and write it under or tothe right of the line.

6. Calculate the earliest time to reach an event node for the start of theprocess. Where more than one streams are combining, the maximumtime taken by a stream is taken into consideration. This time is entered onthe top half of the rectangle. This time is related to the starting time of theprocess which is taken as zero.

7. After the time for all event nodes including the completion of the processor the project is available, one calculates the latest time by which an eventnode must be reached. This is done by starting at the time of completionand going back step by step. The time is entered on the bottom half of therectangle. The time indication at all event nodes will appear as :

X

Y

where X is the earliest time by which the event can be completed andY is the latest time by which the event should be completed.

8. Give a title to the diagram.


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As the calculation of the time indications is extremely important in theconstruction of an arrow diagram it is necessary that we understand theprocedure well. Let us understand the concept through diagram 13.

4 135 6 12

Arrow Diagram - Structure

With Time Required for Steps Expressed in Hours

Diagram 13

Let us calculate the time the events can be reached earliest by adding time forthe step to the time of the earlier event starting with zero time at the start i.e.event-1. Where there are two streams one has to take the time for the longeror the critical path. The time to be put on the top half of the rectangle for the15 event nodes are given in table 3.

For event node 7, we get two values. As the time for node 6 is 5 hours and

Event NodeNo.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Time (Hours) 0 2 4 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 13 14 16 18 20

Time the event nodes can be reached at the earliest

Table 3

step from 6 to 7 takes one hour, the time for 7 would be 6 hours. But time fornode 3 is 4 hours and the step from 3 to 7 takes 3 hours, the time for node 7comes to 7 hours. The earliest both streams get ready is 7 hours and henceone has to take 7 hours as the time for node 7. The same principle has beenapplied for calculating the time for nodes 10 and 14.

Now let us see how to calculate the time to be put on the bottom half of therectangle or the time by which the event must be reached to ensure

1 2 3 7 10 11 14 15

8 9

1 1 2

1 11 1

2524322

1 1

1


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completion of the project on time. In this case one has to start with event 15as 20 hours and calculate the time for the event by reducing the time taken forthe step. Step from event 14 to 15 takes 2 hours. To complete the project at20 hours, it is essential that one reaches event 14 by 18 hours. In this waywe get the time by which the events must be accomplished. These are given

in table 4.

Event NodeNo.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11

12

13

14

15

Time (Hours) 0 2 4 4 5 5 7 9 10

11

13

15

17

18

20

Time the event nodes can be reached at the latest

Table 4

In this case too, we get two values for some nodes. For instance for node 11,we get 14 hours if we consider the step form event 12 to 11 and 13 hours ifwe consider the step from event 14 to 11. Here the lower of the two valueshas to be taken. The same is true for events 7 and 2. If we combine thevalues given in tables 3 and 4, we get the time indication for all the eventnodes as shown in table 5

Event Node No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Time (Top) 0 2 4 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 13 14 16 18 20

Time (Bottom) 0 2 4 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 13 15 17 18 20

Time indication for event nodes expressed in hours

Table 5

The time indication for alternative nodes is shown on the arrow diagram asshown for event nodes 6 and 9 in diagram 14 a & b respectively.

8 9

10

1

1

7

5 611

1

5

6

9

Diagram 14

a

b

10


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A close look at the table shows that the time for all the events on the criticalpath, events 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 14 and 15, remains the same on both the topand the bottom halves of the rectangle. Where there is a difference betweenthe two, there is a slack and the individual has a choice to schedule the stepswithin the limits of the two.

Appl ications

The most common application of an arrow diagram is in planning andscheduling projects which involve a large number of activities. The diagram isalso useful in planning and scheduling steps in complicated processes. Oncean arrow diagram is ready with time indications for all stages of the project orthe process, referred as the event nodes in the procedure, one can look foropportunities to reduce the time taken for the project by concentrating on thesteps on the critical path. It can then be used to monitor the progress of theproject throughout its duration.

Compiled from D L Shah Trust publicationBy B.Girish, Dy. Director

National Productivity Council, Chennai

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7 New QC Tools