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6 Job-Site Training

The use of instructional strategies fortraining individuals on supported employmentjob sites has been well documented. Specificstrategies have included the use of job dutyand task analyses, natural supports, naturalcues, compensatory strategies, prompting pro-cedures, reinforcers, and self-managementprocedures (e.g., self-reinforcement, self-monitoring, and so forth) to mention a few.However, critics of providing instruction atcustomers' job sites have argued that trainingby an employment specialist draws attention tothe customers and isolates them from co-workers and supervisors.

Well-designed instructional programswhich are customer-driven do not segregateindividuals with disabilities. Rather, poor prac-tices isolate customers on job sites. Employ-ment specialists must have knowledge oftraining strategies, the customer's supportneeds, employer's support needs, and the de-mands of the workplace in order to select theleast intrusive method for providing support.This chapter will present a variety of thesestrategies and discuss facilitating customerindependence in the workplace.

J OB DUTY AND TASK ANALYSES

Before the customer begins working,the employment specialist must analyze the joband organize the daily routine. This analysisincludes identifying the areas in which variousjob tasks are performed, determining the essen-tial and non-essential job functions, estab-lishing a work routine, identifying natural sup-ports and natural cues in the workplace, anddesigning appropriate training and supportstrategies. Usually, working one shift prior tointroducing the customer to the position will besufficient for completing these activities.

Working the job, gives the employmentspecialist the opportunity to note the major jobduties and estimate the amount of time requiredfor task completion. The Sequence of JobDuties Form can be used to record this infor-mation, including the movement requiredbetween work stations. If the sequence of jobduties varies from day to day, this also is notedon the form. An example of a completedSequence of Job Duties Form is found on thefollowing page.

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Sequence of Job Duties Form

Position: Stock clerk

Job Site: J. C. Penny's

” Job duties remain the same ” Job duties vary from day to day(If checked, complete a separate form for eachdifferent sequence; circle day for which this formis completed:

Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun.

ApproximateTimes

Job Duty

11:00 to 11:05 Punch in

11:05 to 11:15 Meet w/ supervisor and set up work area

11:15 to 12:30 Price gift merchandise

12:30 to 12:45 Move priced merchandise to stock area

12:45 to 1:00 Set up work area w/ clothing for pricing

1:00 to 1:10 Break

1:10 to 2:30 Price clothing

2:30 to 3:00 Deliver clothing to departments

3:00 to 3:25 Clean up work area & sort hangers

3:25 to 3:30 Punch out

Comments:

Signature:

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Job Duty Analysis Once the sequence of major job duties

has been determined, the next step is to analyzethe skills required to perform each major duty.During this step, the employment specialistidentifies and describes the skills, tools, andequipment that are needed. Information maybe obtained from interviews conducted with theemployer, co-workers, and supervisors; ob-serving co-workers perform the skills; and bypersonally completing the job duties. Typically,each duty on the sequence of job duties willhave several associated skills. In the aboveexample, setting up the work area at Penny'sincluded several tasks. They are listed below:

JOB DUTY: Setting Up theWork Station

# Locates stock for pricing.

# Opens and empties boxes.

# Obtains inventory sheets and day’sprice tickets from supervisor.

# Locates and collects equipment: pricegun, pencil, and inventory stamp.

During this stage of analysis, the employmentspecialist should concentrate first on the jobduty, and how it is performed by the co-worker(s). Once this has been established,he/she can consider how the task can beorganized or modified specific to the workerwho will master it. The following suggestionshave proven useful in completing a job dutyanalysis.

GUIDELINES FOR A JOBDUTY ANALYSIS

1. Interview the employer/supervisor forhis/her input.

2. Serve a co-worker completing the jobduty.

3. Identify the skills that must be com-pleted successfully to perform the jobduty.

4. Identify all tools and machinery thatare required. Consider any modifica-tions or accommodations that may beneeded to this equipment.

5. Determine the most efficient proce-dure to complete each skill.

6. Try to eliminate or reduce unneces-sary movement when completing thejob duty analysis.

7. If changes are made in the "usual wayof doing business", be sure to clear themodifications with the employer and/or supervisor.

(Moon, Inge, Wehman, Brooke, & Barcus, 1990)

Task Analyzing Job DutiesAt this point, the employment specialist

has identified the specific major job duties, thetime of day when these duties occur, thespecific skills associated with each duty, andany needed supplies and tools. Next, theemployment specialist must develop a writtentask analysis for each skill that the customerwill be performing. Steps in a task analysisshould be stated in terms of observablebehaviors with each step representing one“behavior.” Once the step is complete, avisible change in the task or process occurs.Wording steps in the form of a verbal cue (e.g.,

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Push the “off” button), allows the employmentspecialist to use the steps of the task analysis asverbal prompts during instruction. Thefollowing list of tips are offered as guidelinesfor writing a task analysis.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING ATASK ANALYSIS

1. State steps in terms of observablebehaviors.

2. Write steps in adequate detail withonly one behavior per step.

3. Test the task analysis to ensure thateach step results in a visible change inthe task or process.

4. Order steps from first to last.

5. Word steps as verbal cues.

6. Build natural cues and compensatorystrategies into the task analysis.

7. Consider efficiency; use both handswith the least amount of movement.

8. Eliminate discrimination by buildingjudgement into the task (e.g., vacu-uming in a pattern results in a cleanrug vs. needing to discriminate wherethe rug is dirty).

(Moon, et al., 1990)

Case Study Example:John and his employment specialist

identified a job as a maintenance assistant atthe local mall. The actual job duties includedcleaning the restrooms and entrance areas of

the mall prior to the opening of business eachday Monday through Friday. This job wascreated for John based on his specific abilitiesand interests. After completing several situa-tional assessments (e.g., food service,janitorial, and laundry work), John and hisemployment specialist identified the followinginterests and support needs:1. John preferred a job where he could be

mobile. He became quickly bored if he hadto remain in one place.

2. John liked open spaces.

3. John needed a work environment where hecould sing and make noise.

4. John preferred janitorial tasks to kitchenwork or laundry work (as noted by theamount of time he spent engaged in thetasks without assistance.)

The employment specialist contactedthe personnel department of the mall and metwith the manager to discuss possible job dutiesthat John might like. The manger identifiedthat his maintenance crew was not keeping upwith cleaning the entrance areas to the mall andthe restrooms. He agreed to hire John part-timeto complete these job duties.

The employment specialist worked thejob for one day prior to John's first day ofemployment and developed a job duty analysisand task analyses. She talked with the super-visor and then observed the co-workersperform their job duties. Since no one wasroutinely performing the mall entrancecleaning, she spent time washing the windowsand doors to the mall to develop her tasksanalyses. The following job duty sequence wasdeveloped.

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Time Job duties

7:00 a.m.-7:10 Set up cart: Fill mopbucket, get rags, cleaningsupplies

7:10-7:30 Clean men's room (sinks,toilets, mirrors)

7:30-7:35 Clean mop water, rags, &mop

7:35-7:45 Mop men's room

7:45-7:50 Clean mop water, rags, &mop

7:50-8:10 Clean women's room(sinks, toilets, mirrors)

8:10-8:15 Clean mop water, rags, &mop

8:15-8:25 Mop women's room

8:25-8:30 Set up cart: get windowcleaner and supplies

8:30-11:00 Clean mall entrances: pickup trash, wash windows,wash doors.

Within one week of initial training, theemployment specialist realized that John washaving trouble meeting the time schedule asspecified by the supervisor. Specifically, Johnwas having difficulty emptying his mop bucketand cleaning his work supplies in the allotted 5minutes. He liked to watch the bucket fill withwater and overflow into the sink. Therefore, theemployment specialist asked the supervisor ifshe could modify his job duty schedule topromote efficiency. The number of times thatJohn emptied his mop bucket was decreased,and he was able to begin cleaning the entrance

area of the mall at 8:30 a.m.. The following jobduty schedule was agreed to by the supervisor.

Time Job duties

7:00 a.m.-7:10 Set up cart: Fill mopbucket, get rags, cleaningsupplies

7:10-7:30 Clean men's room (sinks,toilets, mirrors)

7:30-7:50 Clean women's room(sinks, toilets, mirrors)

7:50-8:00 Clean mop water, rags, &mop

8:00-8:10 Mop men's room

8:10-8:20 Mop women's room

8:20-8:30 Set up cart: get windowcleaner and supplies

8:30-11:00 Clean mall entrances:pick up trash, wash win-dows, wash doors.

The employment specialist also devel-oped task analyses for each of the skills Johnperformed prior to his first day of work.During the first several days of employment,she observed John during training and modifiedeach analysis based on his abilities. For in-stance, the following task analysis was devel-oped for cleaning the toilet by watching the co-worker who normally performed the job duty.

1. Grab brush and cleanser2. Go to first toilet3. Put cleanser in toilet4. Set down container5. Dip brush in bucket6. Tap brush7. Brush top of toilet8. Brush sides of toilet9. Brush front of toilet

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10. Dip brush in bucket11. Tap brush12. Brush lid of toilet13. Raise lid and brush14. Brush inside of toilet15. Dip brush in bucket16. Tap brush17. Lower lid of toilet18. Brush outside of toilet bowl19. Put brush in bucket20. Get cleanser21. Go to next toilet

However, when the employment spe-cialist observed John doing the task, she notedthat he spent too much time on several steps.For instance, instead of quickly tapping thebrush on the side of the bucket, John persever-ated on the step. The employment specialistdecided to modify the task and teach John apattern for cleaning the toilet. For instance,step 6, tap the brush, was changed to read, tapthe brush 3 x's. John learned to count to threeas a reminder for him to move on to the nextstep of the task analysis.

Another step that John had difficultycompleting was step eight, brush the top oftoilet. John could not discriminate clean vs.dirty surfaces, and he seemed to have no con-cept of when he should stop wiping the top ofthe toilet. Therefore, this step of the task wasfurther broken down into smaller steps forinstruction. In addition, other steps wereanalyzed further into component steps to assistJohn in learning the task and developing apattern for completing the job duty. A samplestep in John's task analysis follows.

Step 8 of Cleaning the Toilet:

Brush top of toilet. (Customer wipes top onetime, always working left to right.)

# Place brush at back corner.# Move brush across top of toilet.# Place brush at front corner.# Move brush across top.

The information placed in parenthesesserved as a cue to the trainer for consistency ofprompting. By adding this comment, the em-ployment specialist could ensure that othertrainers who substituted would prompt this stepin the same way. However, she did not want toadd it to the verbal cues, since she wanted theseto remain short.

This example demonstrates how theem-loyment specialist can first develop a taskanalysis based on the general requirements ofthe job. Once the customer begins working,this analysis can be modified based on thespecific abilities and training needs of theindividual worker. Remember, always checkany changes to the job duty or task analyseswith the employer and/or supervisor prior toimplementation.

Summary: Developing a job dutyanalysis and a tasks analysis of each skillserves as the foundation for job-site training.Once this is accomplished, the customer andemployment specialist can determine whichskills the customer knows how to perform andwhich will require further instruction. Inaddition, this analysis will afford the em-ployment specialist the opportunity to analyze

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the worksite and identify the natural cues andsupports that are available to the customer.

N ATURAL SUPPORTS

Often, the success of a supportedemployment customer will be determined bythe support of the co-workers in the workplace.If the customer is perceived as reliable, co-operative, and competent from the first day ofemployment, the chances for long-term jobretention are increased. Therefore, the firststep in job-site training is to identify the naturalsupports that are available in the workplace.

The use of the word natural implies thatthe supports are ones that are typicallyavailable to all workers in the workplace. Theyare not artificially contrived by theemployment spe-cialist. As such, naturalsupports can be referred to as workplacesupports which are naturally occurring on thejob site. Workplace supports may include butare not limited to such things as a co-workermentor who assists an employee in learningthe job, a supervisor who monitors workperformance, a co-worker who assists thecustomer in developing social relationships,orientation training or other com-panysponsored training events, an employeeassistance program, and so forth.

The employment specialist should notassume that workplace supports will be avail-able automatically to the new employee. Evenif a resource exists, the supported employmentcustomer may not know how to access or bene-fit from its use. He/she may be unaware of thepotential support, how to choose among the

support alternatives, or how to access a desiredresource (Inge, 1994).

The role of the employment specialist isto assist the customer in identifying and re-viewing the variety of supports available and inselecting the ones that meet his/her needs. Acompany may have varying levels of theseresource options. For instance, one companymay have an intensive orientation and trainingprogram while another has none. In addition,the support must be analyzed to determine if itmeets the needs of the customer. A one time,two-hour lecture on company policies may beof little benefit to the customer, while a co-worker who explains the “unwritten rules” ofthe workplace to all new employees may be anextremely valuable resource.

The employment specialist should notexpect that employers and co-workers auto-matically will provide “natural supports” to acustomer. Some individuals initially may feeluncomfortable providing instruction and super-vision to a worker with a disability. The em-ployment specialist can model appropriatesocial interactions and training techniques thatwill assist co-workers and supervisors tobecome proficient in assisting the supportedemployment customer. This can be as subtle asencouraging co-workers to direct questions andconversation to the individual rather than to theemployment specialist from the first day oftraining. Another example may be the employ-ment specialist who assists the customer inlearning the names of his/her co-workers asquickly as possible.

Whenever identifying and using work-place supports, the employment specialist alsoneeds to determine if he/she is creating an

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unnecessary dependence on co-workers. Forinstance, a co-worker could be asked to assistthe customer in setting up his/her work supplieseveryday or in completing other portions ofwork tasks that he/she finds difficult. How-ever, training by an employment specialistwhich assists the customer in working inde-pendently may be the least intrusive strategy.

If training by the employment specialistis the selected option, he/she continually mustevaluate the assistance that is provided duringjob-site training. Something as simple aswhere the employment specialist stands duringinstruction can create dependence on the trainerand place a barrier between the customer andco-workers. The following section on questionsand answers offers some points to considerwhen facilitating workplace supports.

Considerations for the Identificationand Selection of Natural Supports

1. What are the possible workplacesupport resources? There could be manydifferent ways to approach the same supportneed such as: a.) using a co-worker mentor toassist the customer in responding to a naturalcue to increase his/her production; b.) asking asupervisor to assist the customer in monitoringhis/her work production; or c.) having an em-ployment specialist train the customer to moni-tor his/her production using a self-managementprogram. The employment specialist shouldidentify and review all the different supportstrategies and options with the customer, em-ployer, and co-workers.

2. Which strategies match thelearning style or needs of the customer?While there may be many support optionsavailable in the workplace, a customer willrespond to any particular choice based onhis/her learning style. Some individuals mayrespond better to verbal instructions, whileothers need detailed demonstrations and re-peated practice to learn a new job duty. For in-stance, a supervisor may be willing to providesupport to a customer by monitoring his/herwork performance at set intervals of time.However, if the customer does not respond tothe verbal instructions offered by the super-visor, there is a gap between the supportprovided and the support needed.

In this example, the employmentspecialist can work with the employer and cus-tomer to determine if the supervisor needs in-formation on how to support the customer. Or,they may decide that the customer prefers forthe employment specialist to assist him/her inlearning the task. If this is the selected option,the employment specialist must be conscious offading support to the naturally occurring super-vision available from the employer.

3. What are the customer's, em-ployer's, and co-worker's choices? The em-ployment specialist should not assume thatworkplace supports will be provided by the em-ployer or co-workers for all of the customer'sneeds. The employer's and/or co-workers' levelof comfort with supplying the identified sup-port should be determined. Does the customerwant a co-worker assisting with this supportneed? How do the co-workers feel about

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providing the assistance? Does the employerfeel that this is a reasonable accommodation orshould other support options be explored? Thismay be a particularly sensitive issue for discus-sions related to the personal care needs ofcustomers with physical disabilities.

For instance, a customer may be hesi-tant to ask a stranger for personal care supportsuch as eating, and co-workers may also feeluncomfortable providing the support. How-ever, as relationships develop in the work-place, this assistance may evolve naturally.Initially, the employment specialist can facili-tate this by asking co-workers to eat lunch withthe customer and modeling how to provideassistance. Other customers facing the samesituation may choose to hire a personal assis-tant to provide support while still others maychoose to forgo eating during work hours.

4. Which support option results inor promotes customer independence?Would this strategy result in dependence on co-workers when independence could be achievedby the customer? Clearly, dependence on co-workers to provide support to the customermay be as intrusive as creating dependence onthe employment specialist. Situations mayoccur when co-workers are not available toassist the customer with an identified supportneed.

For instance, one customer was havingdifficulty punching in at the beginning and endof his work shift. He was unable to select histime card, since he could not recognize orremember his Social Security number. Theemployment specialist decided that a co-workershould be assigned to assist the individual in

locating the card and punching in or out.Although the employer was willing to providethe support, this particular idea createsdependence on the customer's co-workers.

A color cue added to the timecard mayresult in the customer learning to select it inde-pendently, or he may learn to place the card ina particular location that would not requireidentification of the Social Security number.While every worker needs to rely on co-workers for assistance or support, employmentspecialists should not create situations thatperpetuate learned helplessness. In this in-stance, the co-worker might assist by placingthe color cue on the card, or by checking to seethat the customer successfully keeps it in thespecified location. The customer would haveresponsibility for independently completing thetask while receiving support from co-workers.

Initially, identifying and discussing thevarious support options with the customer, em-ployers, and co-workers is the employmentspecialist’s role during job-site training.Gradually, co-workers and supervisors canassume this responsibility as the employmentspecialist transfers his/her support to the re-sources naturally occurring in the workplace. Inmost instances, a combination of strategies willbe selected to promote customer success. Thiscombination of supports may include naturalsupports from co-workers, natural cues, com-pensatory strategies, as well as instruction fromthe employment specialist and/or co-workers.Determining which combination will promoteindependence while gradually fading the em-ployment specialist's support to the co-workers

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is the key to long term employment for sup-ported employment customers. The remainingsections of this chapter will discuss job-sitetraining strategies and how to put them alltogether to facilitate employment success.

N ATURAL CUES

A natural cue represents some featureof the work environment, job tasks, or activitieswhich signals an employee what to do next.Typically, a natural cue is one that thecustomer can see, hear, touch/feel, or smell andhas not been changed or added to the worksiteby the employment specialist. Examples mayinclude the color of a cleaning supply, anon/off indi-cator light, a buzzer on the servicedoor, the telephone ringing, announcementsover a loud speaker, the "body language" of aco-worker, and the placement or location ofwork materials (e.g., mail in an "in" box, dirtydishes on an un-occupied table, etc.).

When a natural cue is present or occursduring the customer's work routine, he/she willeither attend to the cue and respond correctly,not attend to the cue at all, or respond incor-rectly. For instance, a customer may respondto the buzzer on the service door by opening itfor the delivery person (the correct action);he/she may ignore the buzzer and continuepricing merchandise (no response); or he/shemay go ask another worker to open the door(incorrect response).

Obviously, if the customer attends toand responds to a natural cue, instruction is notrequired. However, some workers must learnto recognize and attend to these cues. Theemployment specialist should work with the

customer, the employer, and co-workers toidentify the natural cues in the workplacewhich can assist the individual in completinghis or her tasks successfully. Often, the co-workers and supervisor can be the most valu-able source for this information.

For instance, a customer who worked ina hotel could not discriminate between the shoeshine cloth and shower cap packages. Theitems came in identical cardboard packets ex-cept for a very small label telling the contents.The customer needed to look on the counter inthe bathroom and determine which items weremissing and replace the correct toiletries.(Note that absence of an item on the counterwas the first natural cue which signaled thecustomer that an item needed replacing.)

Since the customer could not read, shecouldn't look at the two packages and tellwhich one was which without opening them.The customer's co-worker offered the perfectsolution to this situation when asked for assis-tance. She told the employment specialist thatshe never read the labels on the packets. In-stead, she picked up a package and squeezed it;the shower cap made a "crinkling" noise whilethe shoe shine cloth was soft. The natural,physical characteristics of the items told herwhich was which (Personal Communication,Theresa Southerland, August 6, 1996).

Adding an Extra Cue tothe Natural Cue

Some customers still may fail to re-spond or recognize a cue even after it is pointedout to them. One way to call attention to the

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cue may be to initially add an extra or artificialcue to the natural one. This extra cue canenhance the relevant features of the naturallyoccurring one. For example, a customer whowas responsible for filling a condiment bar onan "as needed" basis did not respond to thenaturally occurring cue of the empty bins. Apiece of colored tape was placed on the insideof the bins to signal the customer that a binneeded filling. The tape highlighted therelevant feature of the work task, the emptybin, to which the customer was not responding.

Whenever extra cues are added to thework environment or work tasks, the em-ployment specialist needs to consider fadingthem as the customer begins to notice thenaturally occurring ones. In the bin example,the co-workers or employment specialist mayinitially place a wide strip of colored tape allaround the inside of the bin. This could befaded in the following way:

FADING AN ADDED CUE

# Place a 2" wide strip of red tape aroundthe inside of the bin.

# Decrease to a 1" wide strip of red tapearound the inside of the bin.

# Change to red dots placed ½" apartaround the inside of the bin.

# Fade to red dots placed 2" apart aroundthe inside of the bin.

# Continue fading the distance betweendots and/or the size of the dots until thecustomer responds to the empty bin.

The speed of fading should be based on theworker's ability to continue responding as theextra cue is faded. Remember to include thecustomer, co-workers, and supervisor in dis-cussions on adding extra cues to the workenvironment. This will ensure ownership ofthe strategy by all individuals involved as wellas guarantee that changes are not made that thesupervisor would not approve.

In fact, the supervisor or co-workersshould be approached about assisting the cus-tomer with the extra cue. The supervisor or aco-worker may volunteer to check that addedcues are not removed by other employees whoare unfamiliar with the customer's training pro-gram, and so forth. In fact, co-workers oftendiscover that cues added for the supported em-ployment customer are beneficial to them inperforming their work tasks. As they assist thecustomer with his/her cues, they may begin toassist with identifying other supports. Thisshifting of responsibility from the employmentspecialist to co-workers and supervisor mustoccur in order for a relationship to developbetween the customer and his/her co-workers.

Instruction for Using Natural CuesIn some situations, the employment

specialist still may need to consider providingmore intensive instruction to assist the cus-tomer in responding to natural cues. Typically,this will include developing a task analysis(TA) of the job duty that incorporates learningto recognize these cues. Another option may beto write a TA that eliminates the need for thecustomer to attend to the cue. For instance,

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he/she learns to vacuum the floor in a specificpattern and therefore does not have to deter-mine where the floor is dirty vs. clean.

Once the task analysis is developed, theemployment specialist can select a promptingstrategy to train the customer. Instruction willvary based on the worker's choice, needs, andsituation. The least amount of assistanceshould always be tried first. For instance, whena flashing light comes on the dish machineindicating that the cycle is finished, the em-ployment specialist could provide any numberof prompts. The following list provides severalexamples in a least to most intrusive hierarchy.The reader is referred to the next section onprompting in this chapter for more information.

PROMPTING EXAMPLES FORNATURAL CUES

# Provide an indirect verbal prompt(e.g., “what do you do now” or“what does that mean?”)

# Give the customer a gestural prompt(e.g., point to the flashing light).

# Provide a direct verbal prompt (e.g.,“the light is flashing, open the doorof the dishmachine.”.)

# Provide a model prompt paired witha verbal prompt (e.g., the employ-ment specialist opens the door of thedishmachine while saying, “I see thelight is flashing on the dish-machine”.) The employment special-ist then closes the door and asks thecustomer to complete the step in thetask analysis.

I NSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Once the job duties are identified andtask analyses developed, the employmentspecialist must design instructional programsfor each job duty or other related skills to betaught. The design should include input fromthe customer, the supervisor, and co-workers.Each program includes 1) a training objective,2) data collection guidelines, 3) prompting pro-cedures, 4) reinforcement procedures, and 5)strategies for compensatory strategies and pro-gram modifications. The following sectionsoutline each of these components in detail.

Step 1 Program ObjectivesTraining objectives are written to

include observable skills, the conditions underwhich they occur, and the criteria that will beused to evaluate performance. Each skill to betrained has a corresponding training objective.The following is an example for entering datainto a company's mailing list.

Conditions under which work perform-ance will occur:

# Given a list of addresses and cue,“add the names to the mailing list”,

Observable work skill:# Ramona will enter the names and

addresses.

Criteria for evaluation of worker per-formance:

# With 100% accuracy according tothe steps in the task analysis forthree consecutive probe trials.

Step 2 Data Collection Guidelines

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Recording and graphing data is criticalto the success of job-site training. Measure-ment procedures are a vital component,because they allow the employment specialistto moni-tor the employee’s progress. It willshow whether a particular training strategy iseffec-tive or needs modification (e.g., changingstra-tegies, adding external cues, modifyingtasks, etc.). Data collection also can providedocu-mentation for the customer’s continuedfunding (Moon et al., 1990).

Measurement procedures continuethroughout initial job-site training into longterm supports. This will assist the employmentspecialist in identifying additional training orretraining needs for the customer. Finally, datacollection should never be an intrusive orobvious process.

Baseline, probe, and prompt data arebased on the task analysis of each major jobduty and indicate whether the customer isworking independently. Initial data collectionbefore instruction begins is referred to as base-line and should be conducted at least once priorto the initiation of a skill acquisition program.Data which is collected after training begins isreferred to as probe data. The procedures forbaseline and probe data are essentially the sameand provides information on how well the cus-tomer performs a job duty without promptingor reinforcement from the employment special-ist. Probe data should be collected at least onceeach week. Typically, a job task is consideredlearned when the employee independently andcorrectly performs every step for a minimum ofthree consecutive probe trials.

There are two different strategies thatan employment specialist can use to collect

data on a job site to include a single or multipleopportunity probe. Regardless of whichproce-dure is used, the employment specialistshows the customer how to perform thespecific job duty prior to conducting baselineassessment. After training begins, thecustomer is asked to perform the job dutywithout any prompting or demonstrations.Steps for using a single oppor-tunity probe arelisted in the following table.

GUIDELINES FOR USINGA SINGLE OPPORTUNITY PROBE

1. Have the customer move to the appro-priate work area unless movement ispart of the task analysis.

2. Stand beside or behind the customer sodata collection does not interrupt thework flow.

3. Tell the customer that he/she is going towork without assistance to see whathe/she can do independently.

4. Provide the work cue, (e.g., "Enter thenames into the mailing list.")

5. Do not provide prompts or reinforce-ment.

6. Wait 3-5 seconds for the customer tomake a response.

7. If he or she does not begin to work ormakes an error, discontinue probe andscore a (-) for all steps in task analysis.

8. If he or she begins work, continue aslong as correct responses are made,scoring a (+) for correct performance.

9. As soon as an error occurs, discontinueprobe and score a (-) for all remainingsteps in the task analysis.

(Adapted from Moon et al., 1990)

There is one major benefit to using asingle opportunity probe for data collection.

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Specifically, assessment should not be timeconsuming or interrupt the natural flow of theworkplace. Discontinuing the probe as soon asthe customer makes an error allows for instruc-tion to begin immediately on that specific stepof the task analysis.

In contrast, use of a multiple oppor-tunity probe shows which steps of the task thecustomer is having difficulty performing with-out assistance, prompting, or reinforcement.The employment specialist must assess thework environment and length of task to deter-mine the most appropriate strategy for datacollection. The next table outlines the steps fora multiple opportunity probe procedure.

GUIDELINES FOR USING A MULTIPLE OPPORTUNITY

PROBE

1. Have the customer move to the appro-priate work area unless movement isthe first step in the task analysis.

2. Stand beside or behind the customer sothat data collection does not interruptthe work flow.

3. Provide the work cue (e.g., "Enter thenames into the mailing list.")

4. Do not provide verbal instruction,prompts, or reinforcement during datacollection.

5. Wait a specified time (e.g., 3-5seconds) for the customer to initiate aresponse.

(Continued)

6. Record a (+) if the customer com-pletesthe step correctly.

7. If there is no response or the customeris incorrect, position the customer toperform the next step in the taskanalysis or complete the step yourself(if necessary).

8. Repeat items #5, #6, and #7 as neededin order to test all steps in the taskanalysis from first to last.

(Moon et al., 1990)

Step 3 Prompting ProceduresLeast Prompts: The majority of the

literature on teaching vocational tasks toindividuals with severe disabilities focuses onthe use of least prompts as the teaching strategyof choice (Barcus, Brooke, Inge, Moon, &Goodall, 1987; Cuvo, Leaf, & Borakove, 1978;Test, Grossi, & Keul, 1988). This strategy isalso referred to as a response prompt hierarchy,since the trainer progresses from the leastamount of assistance (usually a verbal prompt)to the most intrusive (usually a physicalprompt) until one prompt results in thecustomer correctly responding.

Employment specialists are encouragedto consider various types of prompts to use inaddition to the traditional verbal, model, physi-cal sequence. For instance, as a customer be-comes more proficient performing his/her jobduties, try using an indirect verbal prompt inthe sequence such as, “what do you do next,”before using the verbal prompt specific to thestep in the task analysis. This may be effectivealso for training individuals who have been

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dependent on trainers for verbal instruction. Inaddition, gestures can be used instead of amodel prompt. Or, a partial physical prompt(e.g., touching the customer’s arm) can be usedinstead of total physical assistance. Thefollowing table lists prompts that can be usedto assist a customer in learning his/ her jobtasks.

PROMPT EXAMPLES

Indirect Verbal Instructions:# "What do you do now?"# "What do you do next?"# "What happens now?"

(Example of an indirect cue given in responseto a natural cue such as a light blinking onthe copy machine.)

Direct Verbal Instructions:# “Get your timecard.”# “Stock the cart.”# “Fill the condiment containers.”

Gestures:# Point to the time clock (to prompt

the customer to punch in/out).# Tap a wrist watch (to prompt the

customer to take a lunch break).# Touch a stack of aprons (to

prompt the customer to put on anapron).

Model Prompts:# Co-worker shows the customer

how to get to the employee breakroom.

# Supervisor demonstrates how toturn on the dishmachine.

Partial Physical Assistance:# Employment specialist taps the

customer on the elbow to prompthim/her to reach for the time card.

# Employment specialist guides thecustomer's elbow to prompt him/her to pick up an apron.

(Continued)

Full Physical Assistance:# Employment specialist, with hand

over the customer's hand, selectsthe time card from the rack.

# Employment specialist, with handon the customer's hand, guideshim/her in placing a securitysticker on a blouse.

Regardless of the types of promptsselected, the employment specialist must estab-lish the length of time, latency period, that heor she will wait for the customer to respondbefore providing the next level of assistance.Usually a worker should be given approxi-mately 3 or 5 seconds to respond indepen-dently. Individuals with physical disabilities,however, may require longer latency periodsbased on their movement limitations, and thisshould be determined on an individual basis(Inge, 1992; Sowers & Powers, 1991). Finally,the employment specialist is cautioned todeliver each prompt only once before movingto the next more intrusive prompt.

GUIDELINES FOR USING ALEAST PROMPT HIERARCHY

1. Have the customer move to the appro-priate work area unless movement ispart of the task analysis (TA).

2. Stand behind or beside the individual sothat you can quickly provide promptswhen necessary.

3. Provide the cue to begin the task.(“Clean the mirror,” or “enter theaddresses into the mailing list,” etc.)

(Continued)

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4. Wait 3 seconds for self-initiation of step1 of the TA.

5. If the customer completes the stepindependently, provide reinforcementand proceed to step 2 of the TA.

6. If the customer is incorrect or does notrespond within 3 seconds, provide averbal prompt specific to step 1 of theTA. ((Example: "Pick up the windex.")

7. If the customer completes the step witha verbal prompt, provide reinforcementand move to step 2.

8. If the customer is incorrect or does notrespond within 3 seconds, model theresponse (Example: The employmentspecialist picks up the windex).

9. If the customer completes the step witha model prompt, provide reinforcementand move to step 2.

10. If the customer is incorrect or does notrespond within 3 seconds, physicallyguide him/her through the response(Example: The employment specialistguides the customer's hand to pick upthe windex.)

11. Begin instruction on step 2 of the TA.

12. Repeat this procedure for each step inthe TA until the task is completed.Always interrupt an error with thenext prompt in the least prompt system.

(Barcus et al., 1987; Moon et al., 1990)

Data Collection Using the LeastIntrusive Prompt System

Prompt data indicate the kinds ofprompts that are given to the customer duringthe performance of the job duty. It is recom-mended that the recording of prompt data belimited to only one or two tasks per day(Barcus et al., 1987; Moon et al., 1986;Wehman et al., 1988). It is more important for

the employment specialist to collect data on apredetermined schedule and to analyze promptdata frequently, than it is to collect data on adaily basis.

The same task analysis recording sheetused for probe data collection is used forrecording prompt data. In the case of leastprompts, the employment specialist records asymbol representing either independent per-formance of a step (+) or use of a specificprompt. For instance, a verbal prompt can bescored by a (v), model (m), gestural (g), orphysical prompt (p).

By keeping track of the number andtypes of prompts that the worker requires overtime, the employment specialist will be able todetermine when it is possible to start graduallymoving away from the customer duringtraining. Initially the employment specialistmay be located beside or behind the customerin a position to provide direct instruction.When the worker is independently performingapproximately 70% to 80% of the steps in thetask analysis for the job duty and the remainingwith a verbal prompt, the employment spe-cialist can move 3-6 feet away from the cus-tomer. If a prompt is needed at this point intraining, the employment specialist can moveup to the worker. Once a correct response isinitiated, the trainer should move back to thedesignated distance.

In this manner the employment special-ist can gradually fade his or her physical prox-mity to a customer as he/she begins to indepen-dently perform the steps of the task analysis.Ultimately, the employment specialist must

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remove his or her presence from the immediatework area in which the job duty is performedand eventually from the job site altogether.The removal of the trainer's presence from theimmediate work area must be systematicallyplanned and based on the performance of thecustomer (Moon et al., 1990).

Graphing DataImprovement in a customer's ability to

perform job duties independently is easier toanalyze if the data are displayed graphically.Tracking the percentage of steps the customerperforms without prompts and reinforcement,allows the employment specialist to determinethe rate at which the worker is acquiring the jobskills. When plotting data on a graph, infor-mation such as frequency, percent, number ofsteps, and other finite data are placed on thevertical axis. Number of sessions, weeks, days,and other infinite numbers go along thehorizontal axis.

Data analysis can indicate whether achange or modification is needed to the trainingprogram. For instance, if the customer isgradually showing an increase in performingsteps independently, continue the instructionalprogram. Or, if the customer is graduallyshowing a decrease in the level of assistance(prompts) required to complete the task,continue the instructional program. However,if there is no change in either prompt or probedata within a week's period of time, theemployment specialist must reevaluate theinstructional plan and change components ofthe program. The following case study provides

an example of how the employment specialistcan graph probe and prompt data.

Graphing Case Study ExampleEric's employment specialist collected

prompt data once each day on the job skill,setting up the condiment bar. The data for hisfirst four days of work are displayed below:

This pictorial representation of the trainingdata, shows that Eric is gradually decreasinghis dependence on more intrusive prompts. Forinstance, on day one his prompt data showedthat he required physical assistance on 45% ofthe steps in the task analysis. On day two, 40%of the steps required a physical prompt.Physical assistance accounted for 30% of theprompts on day 3. Only 25% of the steps re-quired a physical prompt on day 4. Finally onday 5, Eric did not need any physical promptsto complete the steps in the task analysis duringthe prompting sequence. This gradual fadingof the level of prompting assistance requiredindicated that Eric was responding to the leastintrusive prompt strategy.

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The following graph is the data forEric’s initial probe session. Data was collectedusing a single opportunity probe with no assis-tance or reinforcement during the data collec-tion. The probe sessions were conducted everyother day prior to instruction. This graph pre-sents data for the first five probe data collec-tion sessions. Review of this information seemsto indicate that Eric is making little progress inlearning his job task for setting up the condi-ment bar. However, when the prompt data isreviewed for the same time period, the employ-ment specialist realizes that Eric is making pro-gress on this job duty. This is determinedwhen the employment specialist realizes thatEric's prompting needs are decreasing.Continued analysis of the task would berequired to ensure that Eric eventually does notdepend on assis-tance from the employmentspecialist.Prompting Strategies: Time Delay

Another way to systematically fade in-structional prompts is known as time delay(Inge, Moon, & Parent, 1993; Moon et al.,

1990). There are several critical components toa time delay procedure (Gast, Ault, Wolery,Doyle, & Bellanger, 1988; Snell & Gast, 1981).First, the employment specialist must select a

single prompt that consistently assists the cus-tomer in performing the job duty correctly. Ini-tially, the prompt is given simultaneously withthe request to perform the job duty. Gradually,increasing amounts of time (usually seconds)are waited between giving the request to per-form the task and providing the prompt to com-plete the skill correctly. The number of trials ateach delay level and length of the delay shouldbe determined prior to initiation of training.

By pairing the prompt with the requestto perform a work task, the customer is not

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allowed to make errors initially. The delaypro-cedure allows the employment specialist togradually fade assistance until the customerperforms without prompting. For example, aset number of trials are determined for 0second delay, the next set at 2 second delay, thenext a 4 second delay, etc. until the customerperforms without assistance. Unlike the systemof least prompts, time delay requires that theemploy-ment specialist select one prompt foruse during training. Therefore, the procedureis particu-larly useful if an individualconsistently demonstrates a preference for onetype of prompt. For example, if a customer hasshown that he or she always responds to amodel prompt without making errors, theemployment specialist can select it to place ondelay.

Monitoring the training data is essentialto ensure that the customer is not constantlymaking errors during the procedure. If an error

occurs during training, the employmentspecial-ist should implement an errorcorrection pro-cedure. Typically, an error mayoccur once in-creasing amounts of time arewaited before the prompt is provided. Usuallyerror correction consists of immediatelyinterrupting the cus-tomer’s mistake andproviding the prompt. If the customer makes 3or more errors in a row, the trainer mayconsider reverting to a number

of trials at 0 seconds before again delaying theprompt.

Constant time delay is a variation on theabove strategy. Training also begins with apredetermined number of trials at 0 seconddelay. However, after the initial trials areconducted, a constant interval (e.g., 5 seconds)is selected for all remaining trials. Guidelinesfor training using a time delay strategy arelisted in the following table.

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GUIDELINES FOR TIME DELAY

1. Specify number of training trials to be conducted at 0-second delay (e.g., all trials on thefirst day of work will be at 0-second delay).

2. Specify time delay intervals (e.g., 2, 4, 6 or 1, 2, 3, 4 seconds).

3. Determine number of training trials to be conducted at each interval (e.g., all trials on thesecond day of work will be at a 2 second delay; all trials on the third day of work will be ata 4 second delay; and so forth).

4. Select one prompt for training that the customer consistently responds to correctly.

5. Design an error correction procedure; for example, specify that all errors will be interruptedimmediately. If three errors occur consecutively, return to a pre-determined number of trialsat 0-second delay. When these are completed, return to the previous delay level.

6. Implement procedure:a. Have the worker move to the work area unless movement is part of the task

analysis.b. Provide the overall cue to begin work.c. Wait the specified delay level.d. If the worker performs independently, provide reinforcement and move to the next

step of the task analysis.e. If no response occurs within the specified time, provide the prompt and reinforce

the worker for step completion. Move to the next step of the task.f. Interrupt all errors immediately regardless of the time delay level and provide the

selected prompt.g. Implement the error correction procedure if the worker makes 3 errors in a row on

the same step of the task analysis.

Note: The guidelines for a constant time delay procedure follow the same steps outlined abovewith one exception. After the initial trials at 0-seconds are completed, training during all othertrials is done at the selected constant delay, for example, 3 seconds, until the worker meets skillacquisition.

Time Delay Case Study ExampleMonica is a young woman with cerebral

palsy who is responsible for maintaining acompany's mailing list. Initially, she couldtype using a headpointer, but she did not knowhow to use the software program to enter thenames and addresses into the mailing listformat. She learned this job duty with theassistance of an employment specialist and atime delay program.

First, the employment specialist loadeda software program called "sticky keys" onto

Monica's computer to eliminate having to presstwo keys simultaneously (e.g. holding downthe shift key while typing the first letter of aname). Second, she developed a task analysisfor data entry. Third, the employment specialistselected a verbal prompt for the time delaystrategy. This was the prompt of choice, sinceMonica always followed verbal instructionssuccess-fully. The task analysis for enteringone name and corresponding address follows:

Enter Name and Address

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1. Press up arrow key.2. Press control key.3. Type F.4. Press shift key.5. Type first name.6. Press enter key.7. Press shift key.8. Type last name.9. Press enter key.10. Type company name.11. Press enter key 2 x's.12. Type street.13. Press enter key 2 x's.14. Type zip code.15. Press enter key 2 x's.16. Type today's date.

17. Press enter key 3 x's.18. Type 1.19. Press enter key 3 x's.20. Begin next entry.

Monica's time delay program consistedof one day of work with 0-second time delay.For instance, as soon as the instructional cue,"enter a name and address" was given, theemployment specialist gave the first verbal cue,"press up arrow key." As soon as Monicapressed the up arrow key, the next verbalprompt was given, "press the shift key", and soforth. In this manner, the employment special-ist "verbally walked" Monica successfullythrough the first day of data entry. On thenext day of instruction, the employmentspecialist used a 2 second delay procedure.This meant that she paused for 2 secondsbetween prompts, for instance:

Give instructional cue. Enter name and address.

# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if Monicacorrectly initiates first step in the taskbefore prompt. If no response, providea verbal cue specific to first step in the

task analysis.

1. Press up arrow key. (Verbal prompt)# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if correct

response before prompt. If no re-sponse, give verbal cue for next step.

2. Press control key. (Verbal prompt)# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if correct

response before prompt. If no re-sponse, give verbal cue for next step.

3. Type F. (Verbal prompt)# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if correct

response before prompt. If no re-sponse, give verbal cue for next step.

4. Press shift key. (Verbal prompt)# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if correct

response before prompt. If no re-sponse, give verbal cue for next step.

5. Type first name. (Verbal prompt)# Wait 2 seconds. Reinforce if correct

response before prompt. If no re-sponse, give verbal cue for next step,etc.

If Monica began to make a mistake while theemployment specialist was waiting betweensteps, she was interrupted immediately with thenext verbal prompt. The delay level betweensteps was gradually increased each day untilMonica was working independently.

Step 4 Reinforcement ProceduresSelection of reinforcers as well as the

systematic delivery of reinforcement can assistthe customer in becoming successful in theworkplace. Typically, the most effective rein-forcers are those that occur as a naturalconsequence to a given task or situation withinthe work environment (Wilcox & Bellamy,1982). Therefore, the employment specialistbegins by identifying items that are available

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on the job site. This includes such things as co-worker praise, supervisor approval, positivewritten supervisor evaluations, pay raises orbonuses, and so forth.

However, some workers with signifi-cant disabilities may not initially understandthe relationship between working and naturallyoccurring reinforcers such as earning a pay-check and approval from co-workers andsuper-visors. In these instances, more tangiblerein-forcers may be used initially and graduallyfaded as the naturally occurring ones becomemeaningful. For example, there may be avending machine located within the employeebreak room which can be used to reinforce theworker at the end of a job duty or an employeecafeteria where he or she can get a snack. Theaddition of edible or tangible reinforcers shouldnever be used unless a procedure for fadingthem is built into the training program.

Remember that all individuals will notbe reinforced by the same items and that eventhe most preferred reinforcer, if used too fre-quently, will lose its effectiveness (Falvey,1989). Only after failing to identify a naturalreinforcer, should the employment specialistselect more artificial items (Moon et al., 1990).The following information may be useful inidentifying potential reinforcers for supportedemployment customers (Barcus et al., 1987;Falvey, 1989; Inge, Barcus, Brooke, &Everson, 1995; Moon et al., 1990).1. Survey the customer and those familiar

with him/her to determine likes and dis-likes. Include leisure activities, tangibleitems, types of verbal reinforcement, etc.Consider asking some of the following

questions.a. What are some things you like to

do by yourself for fun?b. What do you enjoy doing with

friends/family in your free time?c. Do you have any hobbies or

games you enjoy?d. Are there any hobbies or games

you would like to learn?e. Do you like listening to music?

f. Tell me about the type of musicyou like.

g. Who do you like spending timewith?

j. If you had 50¢, $1, $5, $10, etc.,what would you buy?

2. Observe the customer in several naturalenvironments (e.g., at home, in arestaurant, at the mall) during his or herfree time and record what he or she does.

3. Offer the customer a chance to interactwith several novel items and record whathe or she does. Often individuals withlimited experiences, do not know what theylike to do. Offering them options, allowscus-tomers to develop choices andinterests. If the customer can not tell youabout his or her choices, repeat theexperiences over several days anddetermine if there is a pattern to thecustomer's choices.

4. Select an item and use it as a reinforcer,Observe to see if the worker's skill levelincreases.

Timing: After a reinforcer has beenidentified for use on a job site, a schedule of re-

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inforcement should be established. Many cus-tomers who require additional reinforcementdo not understand the connection betweenwork well done and the paycheck. Ideally, allrein-forcement is provided immediatelyfollowing the occurrence of the desired workskill. However, it usually is not feasible on ajob site to provide tangible or ediblereinforcement im-mediately after a responseoccurs. In these instances, the employmentspecialist must develop a training program thatuses

exchangeable reinforcers on predeterminedschedules. These systems must be age appro-priate and not draw attention to the worker.Exchangeable items may include money,tokens, points on a card, checks on a calendar,and so forth. These items are exchanged laterfor the item(s) that the customer selects.

There are several advantages to usingexchangeable reinforcers (Moon et al., 1990).First, if the employment specialist uses moneyas the exchangeable item, he or she is teachingthe customer the relationship between workand money. Also, all food and tangible objects(e.g., magazine) can be given at an appropriatetime such as during break. Finally, the em-ployment specialist can gradually increase theprogram requirements for earning the ex-changeable item in order to fade the re-inforcement. As an example, a customer earns10¢ for every five minutes of work. At the endof one hour, he or she can spend the moneyearned in the vending machine.

Whenever, exchangeable tokens areused, the employment specialist also shouldprovide verbal praise for working. As the cus-tomer becomes more successful, verbal praiseusually becomes reinforcing. The tangible itemgradually can be faded to naturally occurringpraise from the supervisor and/or co-workers.

Schedule of delivery: Employmentspecialists can use two types of schedules toinclude a predetermined number of responses:ratio schedule of reinforcement; or a pre-determined period of time, interval schedule ofreinforcement (Inge, Dymond, Wehman, et al.,1993; Moon et al., 1990). Either of these types

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of schedules can be fixed or variable. In afixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is providedto the customer after a set number ofresponses (e.g., after every step in the taskanalysis, after every 3 steps in the TA, afterevery 5 names entered into the mailing list,after every 5 towels folded, and so forth.) Orthe employ-ment specialist can use a variableschedule which requires giving the customerthe rein-forcement after an average number ofresponses (e.g., on the average of every 3 stepsin the TA, on the average of every 5 namesentered into the mailing list, and so forth.) If avariable schedule is used, the customer usuallydoes not anticipate when reinforcement will beprovided which may approximate howreinforcement is provided in natural workenvironments.

Use of an interval schedule requiresthat reinforcement is provided based on timeinter-vals. Using a fixed interval schedule, theem-ployment specialist may decide to reinforcethe customer after every 5 minutes, at the endof a half hour, an hour, end of the day, and soforth. A variable interval schedule occurs onthe average of a set period of time such as onthe average of every half hour. Intervalschedules of reinforcement are most like thenaturally occurring reinforcement schedules ona job site. For instance, a paycheck is usuallyearned on a fixed interval schedule of once aweek. Or, a supervisor typically praises his/heremployees based on time intervals such as anannual performance evaluation.

When using ratio and interval schedulesof reinforcement, the employment specialistshould determine the number of responses or

the length of the intervals for reinforcementbased on the support needs of the customer.Obviously, if he/she works successfully withearning a paycheck once a week, a more in-tensive schedule should not be considered.However, if the customer has no concept of apaycheck, a more intrusive level of rein-forcement should be implemented. Only whenthe employment specialist fades to the naturallyoccurring reinforcement of the job site will thecustomer be independent in the work place.Figure 2 in the appendix of this chapter pro-vides a training program which demonstratesthe fading of reinforcement.

C OMPENSATORY STRATEGIES

Adding compensatory strategies to job-site training can enhance a customer's ability tolearn and perform independently. In some in-stances, using a compensatory strategy caneliminate instruction and allow the individualto participate in activities that he/she otherwisewould not be able. For instance, a customermay use a "money card" to purchase a sodafrom the break room vending machine. Themoney card eliminates the need for the cus-tomer to learn the difference between coins orthe actual amount that is required to access themachine. However, the steps in using a com-pensatory strategy may require instruction andshould be included within any task analysesthat are developed.

If compensatory strategies are targeted,they must be designed with input from thecustomer, employer, and co-workers. In addi-tion, care should be given to the design and

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construction of materials to ensure that they donot stigmatize the customer. Materials shouldbe those that any adult could access within awork environment and would be accepted bythe work culture where they are used.

For instance, if a picture book isselected to assist a customer in rememberinghis/her work schedule, the employment special-ist and customer should work together in thedesign of the booklet. Some of the things theymay want to consider include the following:

# Pictures should be concise and eliminateunnecessary information.

# The number of pictures in the bookletshould be evaluated. Too many may dis-tract or confuse the customer rather thanassist in task completion.

# The size of the booklet must be evaluated.Does it draw attention to the customer?Could it be made small enough to fit in apocket?

# The materials must be those that any adultwould use.

# The booklet should be durable. How oftenwill it need to be replaced? Who will beassisting the customer after the employ-ment specialist has faded from the workplace?

# The materials should be simple to use. Isthere a less complicated strategy that isjust as effective? For instance, could thecustomer learn to use a written list of jobtasks rather than a bulky picture book?

While the above list has been designedspecific to the use of a picture booklet, thesame concepts or ideas could be applied toalmost any compensatory strategy used on ajob site. They should be simple to use, concise,

and the least intrusive strategy selected thatwill assist the customer in performing his/herjob duties.

Case Study Using a Picture BookRandy learned to perform his job duty

of vacuuming the second floor of a localdepartment store. However, he had difficultymoving from one department to another. Forinstance, one day he would remember tovacuum the shoe department while on anotherday, he would skip it entirely. On yet anotherday, he would remember to vacuum the shoedepartment, but forget to vacuum the woman'scoat area. The employment specialistdiscussed this with Randy and his employer,and they came up with the following solution.

There were five areas Randy needed tovacuum in a day including: woman's coats,woman's shoes, woman's dresses, woman'saccessories, and cosmetics. The employmentspecialist copied pictures that represented eacharea of the second floor. The pictures wereapproximately 3" by 3". Booklets weredeveloped by stapling five pictures together ina packet. Randy's supervisor agreed to makesure that there were booklets always availablein his locker.

At the beginning of a work day, Randytook out one booklet from his locker. He pro-ceeded to the area of the store to be vacuumedas represented by the first picture in thepacket. After he completed vacuuming thesection, Randy tore the top picture from thebooklet and threw it in the trash. He thenmoved to the next area. In this manner, Randywas able to se-quence the sections of the storefor vacuuming. Throwing away a picture after

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the work was completed seemed to be veryreinforcing and helped Randy move throughhis work day.

Summary: Employment specialists areencouraged to design other compensatory stra-tegies specific to customers for whom they areintended to benefit. Many types of added cuesand prompts can be used. The following tableprovides more compensatory strategy ideas.

COMPENSATORY STRATEGY IDEAS

The customer can't remember his/hersequence of job duties.

# written list# audio-cassette # picture book# assignment board# flow chart

The customer has difficulty reading copyrequests to determine work assignments.

# in/out boxes for each co-worker re-questing work with name or pictureof co-worker on box

# special form highlighting relevantfeatures of the task such as thickout-lined box where number ofcopies is located

# audio-cassette requests for copywork

The customer can't count to package workmaterials.

# strips of tape on table which cor-respond to # of items in package

# picture of # of items in the package# box with # of dividers which cor-

respond to # of items in package# sample of package for matching

work

Compensatory Memory StrategiesSome individuals with brain injury will

have specific memory difficulties related totheir disability (Briel, in press; Kreutzer &Wehman, 1990; Penn & Cleary, 1988). Thismay include problems with auditory and visualmemory and learning, as well as short and longterm memory. Compensatory strategies are oneway to deal with these issues. Some of thespecific strategies that have been suggested forcustomers with brain injury include the use ofimagery, number chunking, memory note-books, verbal labeling, and verbal rehearsal, tomention a few. The following information isadapted from:1. handout materials compiled by Virginia

Commonwealth University's, Medical Col-lege of Virginia Neuropsychology Servicein 1993,

2. a Supported Employment Telecourse Net-work broadcast from the RehabilitationResearch and Training Center on Sup-ported Employment, and

3. personal communication with Ms. PamTargett, Employment Services Director atthe RRTC.

# Imagery: The process of using mental pic-tures/images of information to be recalled.Example: The customer visualizes himselfwalking a specific route to assist inremembering how to find his job site.

# Mnemonic: Impose an organizationalstructure on verbal information to cue re-call of several elements. Example: Aclerical assistant recalls her sequence ofjob duties by remembering the word, code.

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C = clock inO = open mailD = deliver mailE = enter data

# Number Grouping: Recalling numbers byperceptually reorganizing them into fewerelements. Example: A customer working atcentral supply in a hospital needed toremember to pull items based on a fourdigit code. She would look at a computerprintout and see four numbers such as1,7,2, and 5. Instead of saying these sepa-rately, she recalled the information asseventeen twenty-five.

# Memory Notebook: Maintaining writtencues systematically in a log to keep up withthings that have been done or need to beaccomplished. Example: A date or daytimeorganizer book is used by employees toremember appointments.

# Verbal Rehearsal: Repeating key in-formation to facilitate memory recall.Example: Inventory control specialist forsets up her work station by stating thefollowing aloud: 1.) turn on monitor; 2.)turn on computer, 3.) enter my password,4.) hit enter, etc. She eventually learns tointernalize this process by repeating theinstruction quietly until she no longerneeds to verbalize the information.

# Assignment Board: A graphically pre-sented list of task assignments. Example:A customer keeps a bulletin board on thedoor of her locker. She lists her job dutieswith specific times for completion to referto if needed throughout her work day.

# Location and Place Markers: A visualcue physically placed at some point in atask sequence indicating where the task isto be resumed. Example: Warehouseworker who straightens shelf inventorysometimes is called off task to fill an order.He cannot remember where he leaves hisstraightening task. The worker ties abandanna on the shelf to cue himself forcoming back to where he left off.

S ELF-MANAGEMENT

Self-management has been referred toas self-monitoring, self-observation, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement, self-instruction,and self-assessment, to mention a few terms(Browder & Shapiro, 1985; Karoly, 1977;Kazdin, 1984; Shapiro, 1981). Self-management strategies may be applied eitherbefore or after the targeted job duty or skill toassist the worker in performing a task suc-cessfully. For instance, the worker may use apreset alarm on a watch to determine when it istime to take a break. Another example, may bea worker who uses a compensatory strategysuch as a picture book of tasks that need to becompleted during the day. Yet another ex-ample, might be a worker who evaluateshis/her work performance in order to self-reinforce such as marking checks on a card fora specific amount of work which is laterexchanged for a reinforcer. The followingtable provides ex-amples of self-managementterms, definitions, and examples.

FREQUENTLY USED TERMS AND

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Self-Assessment...Discriminating the oc-currence of one's behavior (Shapiro, 1981,p. 268).

Example: Bill assesses whether he has orhas not completed a work task such aswiping all the tables in a fast foodrestaurant.

Self-Reinforcement...Providing oneselfwith reinforcing consequences contingentupon work performance (Kazdin, 1984, p.300). This strategy usually is combinedwith other procedures such as self-assessment.

Examples: Mary takes a coin from a boxand places it in her pocket aftervacuuming each section of the depart-ment store (e.g., shoe section, women'ssportswear, etc.).

Marcia places a check on a card after sheprices all the items in a box. She ex-changes these checks for a preferred item(e.g., soda, magazine, etc.) at the end ofher work day.

Self-Instruction...Verbal statements tooneself which prompt, direct, or maintainbehavior (O’Leary & Dubey, 1979, p.459).

Example: John instructs himself byspeaking out loud. Such as..”First, I goto the supply closet and get mycart...Now, I go to the windows...Spraythe glass... Am I getting all thedirt?...Move on to the next set...Workfast.” etc.

Table Adapted From: Browder, D.M. & Shapiro, E.S.(1985). Applications of self-management to individualswith severe handicaps: A review. JASH, 10(4), 200-208.

The effectiveness of self-managementprocedures has been well documented. Forinstance, Shafer and Brooke (1985) used a self-recording strategy to increase the punctuality of

a young woman in a community job site. Thesupported employment customer recorded hercheck-out time on a piece of paper that wasprinted with a calendar grid. She was respon-sible for recording the time that her supervisortold her to leave the job site on this card, aswell as, using the time clock to punch-out. Theemployment specialist compared her self-recording card with the actual punch-out timeevery three or four days. This self-monitoringstrategy was successful in decreasing thenumber of days that the worker left the job siteprior to schedule without daily supervisionfrom the employment specialist.

Self-management usually entails in-structing the employee to independently self-monitor by using such things as natural cues,adding external cues and prompts, compen-satory strategies, assistive technology devices,and so forth. This instruction can be providedby the employment specialist, friends, familymember, co-workers, and/or the supervisor de-pending on the customer's support needs. Forinstance, a family member may assist the cus-tomer in learning to check off days on acalendar to determine when he/she goes towork. A co-worker may instruct the same indi-vidual in using a timer to monitor production,while the employment specialist assists theindividual in developing a self- reinforcementstrategy to use on the job when he/she meetsthe production standard. Regardless of who

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provides the customer instruction and support,the following guidelines should be considered.

1. Review training data. If the employee ishaving specific difficulties in sequencing,discriminating, meeting production, con-sider using self-management procedures.

2. Consider the learning style of the cus-tomer. Does he/she respond best to visual,auditory, tactile information, or is a com-bination of these needed?

3. Determine if the self-management stra-tegies are stigmatizing. For instance, self-instruction may not be appropriate for thecustomer who is in frequent contact withco-workers and the public.

4. Always have the customer assist in thedesign and selection of self-managementstrategies.

5. Include the supervisor and/or co-workersin the process. Don't implement a strategywithout approval.

6. Decide who will be responsible for sup-porting the customer in learning how toself-monitor.

7. Evaluate the procedure and modify ifnecessary.

8. Fade the self-management procedure ifnecessary.

INCREASING PRODUCTION TOCOMPANY STANDARDS

Employment specialists are cautionedto provide initial skill training at a pace thatrequires the worker to maintain a steady and

standard speed of performance. If this issuccessful, the customer should be performinghis or her job duties to company standards oncethe skills are acquired. However, sometimes acustomer may still need additional training tomeet the company production rate.

Prior to developing a formal program,the employment specialist should determine ifthe customer is performing all steps of the taskanalysis as they were designed. Sometimes,production issues can be related to inefficienttask analysis development or to inefficientworker implementation. In addition, some pro-duction issues are the result of the customer'sability to attend to the work task. Simply,moving the customer's work station to an areawith less distractions may be enough to in-crease his or her production rate. Thefollowing steps should be completed prior toinitiating training to increase the customer'sproduction rate (Moon et al., 1990).

Steps in determining whether a formal pro-gram is necessary to increase production rate.

# Review the probe data for the task.Make sure the customer is performingall steps of the task analysis as de-signed.

# If the customer is not performing allsteps, resume the training programuntil he/she is performing the steps ofthe TA in order.

# If all steps are being performed cor-rectly, review the TA. Revise the taskso that it is performed as efficiently aspossible. (e.g., reduce worker move-ment).

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# If the TA is revised, begin traininguntil the customer is completing thejob duty based on the revisions.

# If the original TA is satisfactory,determine if the customer is havingdifficulty with on-task behavior. Ifhe/she has more than 20% off-taskbehavior, implement a training pro-gram.

# If the TA is efficient and on/off taskperformance is not a problem, designand implement a program to increaseproduction.

Verify the job site productionstandard: The first step in increasing thecustomer’s production rate is to verify a com-pany standard which can be used to comparethe employee’s rate. This is accomplished byasking the supervisor if there is an establishedcompany production standard for each job dutythat the worker is performing. Preferably, theemployment specialist and the customer havebeen aware of this production rate from thefirst day of job-site training.

After the employer provides the currentstandard, the employment specialist shouldverify the rate based on the performance of co-workers who are performing these tasks. Thiscan be accomplished by observing one or twoemployees for several days and taking anaverage of their production rate. If the produc-tion rate is defined by the length of time ittakes to perform a job duty, complete thefollowing steps:

Production Standard Basedon Time

1. Note the time that the co-worker begins thejob duty.

2. Observe the co-worker performing the task.

3. Note the time he/she completes the task.

4. Subtract the beginning time from theending time to determine the amount oftime it takes to complete the job duty.

5. Take an average production rate acrossseveral days to verify a company standard.

If the production standard is determined bycounting the number of units completedduring a given time period, complete thefollowing steps to verify the company standard:

Production Standard Based on# of Units

1. Identify two time periods during the day toobserve co-worker perform the job duty.

2. Count and record the number of unitscompleted (e.g., number of towels folded)during the identified sample time period(e.g., 10 minutes, 30 minutes, etc.).

3. Keep the time period constant over allobservation periods.

4. Take an average of the co-worker’s pro-duction rate to verify a company standard.

Determining the Customer’s Produc-tion Rate: After the company standard hasbeen established, the customer should comparehis/her rate to determine if additional trainingand support is required. Follow the aboveprocedures to determine the customer’s rate.Then divide the company standard by thecustomer’s rate to get a percentage of standardfor the worker. For instance, if the companyrate is to finish the job duty in 15 minutes andthe customer is taking 30 minutes, divide 15 by

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30 to arrive at 50% of the production standard.Or, if the company rate is determined by thenumber of units completed, divide the numberof units that the customer completed in the timeperiod by the number completed by the co-worker. For instance, the customer folds 10towels in the time period while the companystandard is 25 towels. The customer’s currentproduction rate would 40% of the standard or10 divided by 25. A production standard dataform is located in the appendix of this chapter.The following case study is an example of howone customer learned to increase herproduction using self-management procedures.

SELF-MANAGEMENT CASESTUDY EXAMPLE

Jessica works part-time at a restaurantas a bus person 9:00 a.m. to noon, Tuesday,Thursday, and Saturday and 9:00 to 3:00 p.m.on Friday. From the first day of work, Jessicahas earned $4.25 per hour for a total of 15hours per week. During the times of the weekthat Jessica does not work, she attends herregular school program. Her primary job dutyis to roll silverware and distribute it to the busstations. She also occasionally greets cus-tomers as they enter the restaurant.

This job was designed for Jessica by therestaurant manager and her employment spe-cialist. It was determined during the initialinterview, that the waitresses have difficultykeeping an adequate supply of silverwareduring the work day. As such, the managerwas

very receptive to creating a position for Jessicathat freed up the waitresses from this part oftheir job responsibility.

Initial job-site training took placethroughout the restaurant, however the majorityof the instruction occurred at a small workstation located between two dining rooms.Waitresses and other employees constantlymove in and out of this area, since it housessupplies for setting the tables, as well as,serving non-alcoholic beverages.

Initial TrainingInitially, Jessica was trained by her

employment specialist to roll silverware usinga least prompt strategy. She successfullylearned the task and could perform it withoutprompting; however, an analysis of her pro-gram data indicated that Jessica did not meetthe production standards for rolling silver-ware. Jessica, her employment specialist, andsuper-visor decided that she should try using aself-management procedure.

Measurement and Recording ProceduresThe first step in assisting Jessica in

meeting production was to set and verify acompany standard for rolling silverware. Themanager wanted this task completed at asteady, constant work pace, but he did not havea specific predetermined standard for Jessica tofollow. Therefore, the employment specialistobserved co-workers, observed Jessica's pro-duction without reinforcement or prompting,and completed the task himself to determine areasonable rate of performance. A production

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standard of 10 pieces of silverware in 8minutes was set, and the manager and co-workers agreed that the rate would besatisfactory. Prior to implementing the programdesign, the em-ployment specialist took abaseline of Jessica's performance. Whenmeasured unobtrusively, she completed onepiece of silverware an average of every 90seconds (10 pieces of silverware in 15minutes.)

Program DesignSelf-Monitoring: Two cues were

selected based on Jessica's learning style toassist her in self-monitoring production. First,an auditory cue, a digital kitchen timer, waspurchased by the employment specialist, and 8minutes was placed in its stored memory.Next, a visual cue, 10 strips of colored tape,were placed on the table to the right side ofJessica's work station. Each piece of tapecorresponded to one piece of rolled silverware.Jessica was trained to punch the "start/stop"button on the timer as the first step inbeginning her silverware task. After rollingone piece of silverware, she placed thecompleted work on a strip of tape. Essentially,Jessica was in-structed to fill the "cue area"with silverware prior to the alarm sounding onthe timer.

Self-Reinforcement: The second com-ponent of the program was the design of a"reinforcement booklet." A line drawing of 4pieces of silverware positioned on a napkin wascreated by the employment specialist. He thendivided one page of standard white bond paperinto 5 sections approximately 8" by 2 1/4".

Within these 5 sections, ten line drawings were

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positioned. Next, the employment specialistused the copy machine to produce multiplepages of the "reinforcer". After producing thepages, he cut them into strips and stapled 5“reinforcer” sheets together to make a booklet.

Self-reinforcement occurred afterJessica picked up the ten rolls of silverwarefrom the “tape grid” and placed them in asilverware bin. If the timer had not rung, shepushed the “start/stop” button, picked up the“reinforcer booklet”, tore off a sheet, andplaced it on the table beside her work. At theend of the day, Jessica could take these“earned” pages to show at school and at home.If the timer rang prior to completion of tenpieces of silverware, Jessica was to tear off areinforcer sheet and throw it in the trash can.She then finished the remainder of the ten, putthe silverware in the finished silverware bin,and started on the next set of ten by setting thetimer.

Five sections of ten were selected foreach reinforcer sheet, since this correspondedto the number of napkins, 50, in a pack, as wellas, approximately 1 hour of work. It was feltthat this could further assist Jessica in self-monitoring her production/speed. In otherwords, at the end of one hour of work, Jessicashould have an empty pack of napkins, a fullbin of rolled silverware, and a reinforcer sheetthat she could take to school or home at the endof the day. The extra was allowed for gettingnew supplies and distributing the silverware tothe waitress stations. In addition, Jessica's co-workers assisted her by agreeing to check onher at the end of each hour. If she had

completed the task, she was able to assist her co-worker as a door greeter until the beginningof the next hour of work.

The employment specialist took the re-sponsibility of assisting Jessica in learning howto use the self-monitoring program. Once shelearned the task, her production standard wasmaintained with the support of her co-workers.Initially, Jessica did not fully understand theconcept of working at a constant speed. Theuse of the self-management procedures assistedher in meeting production without constantinter-ference from the employment specialist,until she began to do so independently. Inaddition, it is suggested that the naturalconsequences of working at an acceptablespeed (e.g. positive interactions from hersupervisor and co-workers) began to influenceJessica's work performance. The self-management procedures quickly lead to thetransfer of control from arti-ficial prompts andreinforcers to the naturally occurring supportson the job site. By using a self-managementprocedure Jessica is in control of her training,and she presents a competent image to her co-workers.

J OB SITE MODIFICATIONS

In some cases, the initial training pro-gram does not result in the customer learningthe job duties. If this is the case, the em-ployment specialist must determine how torevise the training plan. This can be done byreviewing the data and pinpointing whatchanges need to be made. Occasionally, theemployment specialist may find it difficult to

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determine exactly what is limiting success. Inthese instances, several employment specialistsand the program manager should brainstormsolutions to the problems encountered. Thefollowing list of questions can assist inprogram modifications (Inge, et al., 1993;Moon et al., 1990). The answers will assist theemployment specialist in modifying thetraining program to meet the support needs ofthe customer.

1. Analyze the training program.

# Does the prompting procedure (leastprompts, time delay) match thelearning style of the customer?

# Is the customer responding to the typeof prompt(s) selected?

# Is the customer distracted by noise orpeople in the environment? Is he/sheattending to the job task? Can thelocation of the task be modified todecrease distractions?

# Can you reduce the number of jobduties being taught in order to providerepeated practice on a specific jobduty?

2. Evaluate the task analysis.# Has the task been analyzed to match

the customer’s abilities?

# Can the steps be further analyzed intosmaller components?

# Have the physical abilities of thecustomer been taken into consider-ation? Can the task analysis be modi-fied to match the motor skills of theworker?

# Does the task analysis eliminate theneed to make quality judgements?

# Do the steps in the tasks analysis in-clude any added cues or compensatorystrategies that have been added to thejob duty?

# Can several steps of the task be taughtrather than the whole task analysis?

3. Assess the reinforcement.# Are the naturally occurring reinforcers

meaningful to the customer?

# Does he or she need additional rein-forcement to learn the job duty?

# Has a program to systematically fadeadded reinforcement been designedand followed based on datacollection?

# Is the selected reinforcer(s) motivatingto the customer?

# Is the timing of reinforcement correct?

# Does the schedule of reinforcement(variable vs. ratio) meet the supportneeds of the customer?

# Has the reinforcement been faded tooquickly?

4. Consider assistive technology.# Is the customer’s mobility or motor

abilities affecting his or her skillacquisition?

# Can the customer physically performthe job, but is it difficult or physicallyimpossible for him or her to meet theproduction demands of the job?

# Does the worker become fatiguedwhen attempting to perform the motordemands of the task?

# Has the work site been modified tomeet the physical support needs of thecustomer? Are the work suppliespositioned for maximum accessibility?

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# Would the customer’s level of inde-pendence be increased by the appli-cation of assistive technology?

# Is the job site supportive of tech-nology, and will co-workers be avail-able to provide assistance during adifficult portion of the task?

# Can the job be restructured to bettermatch the physical abilities of thecustomer?

A SSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY

A customer with physical challengeswill have specialized support needs in theworkplace (Inge & Sharpton, 1995; Sowers &Powers, 1991). These challenges can be metwith assistive technology devices and services.The 1994 Reauthorization of the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals Act (TechAct) defined assistive technology (AT) devicesand services:

The term assistive technology devicemeans any item, piece of equipment,or product system, whether acquiredcommercially off the shelf, modified,or customized, that is used to in-crease, maintain, or improve func-tional capabilities of individuals withdisabilities [20 U.S.C. § 140(25)].

The term assistive technology servicemeans any service that directlyassists an individual with a disabilityin the selection, acquisition, or use ofan assistive technology device [20U.S.C. § 140(26)].

There is a continuum of complexity intechnology related to the device as well as thetype of materials or manufacturing techniquesused to produce the device (Inge & Shepherd,1995). Low technology usually includes de-vices which are simple, with few or no move-able parts (Mann & Lane, 1991). Low tech-nology devices that customers may use on jobsites may include 1) dycem (a non-skid matwhich can stabilize work materials for the cus-tomer), 2) keyguards, 3) book stands, 4)reachers, 5) laptray, 6) built-up or enlargedhandles on utensils or work tools. Low tech-nology devices can be purchased almost any-where from the local hardware store, cata-logues, or can be made from materials that arefound in a home workshop. Usually, these de-vices are low cost and can be obtained quickly.

High technology devices are defined bythe use of electronics, specialized manu-facturing techniques, and materials (Anson,1993). High technology is most often associ-ated with computers, robotics, environmentalcontrol units, power wheelchairs, and so forth.Rehabilitation engineers; occupational, physi-cal, speech therapists; or other rehabilitationpersonnel can assist customers in identifyingand obtaining high technology devices.

High tech devices are typically avail-able through vendors of specialized companiesdealing in specific types of merchandise. ATservices and devices can be paid for by the De-partment of Rehabilitative Services, Medicaid,Social Security Work Incentives, private insur-ance, and by the employer (Wallace, 1995).Technology support needs should be identified

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after the customer has selected a career path orpotential job (Powers, 1995). This is verydifferent from identifying devices and servicesand then trying to fit it into a job site. Thefollowing table provides information resourcesin the area of assistive technology.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGYRESOURCES

AbledataSilver Spring, MD(800) 227-0216

Apple Computer, Inc.Office of Special Education20525 Mariani AvenueCupertino, CA 95014

Assistive Technology SourcebookRESNA PressDepartment 4006Washington, DC 20042-4006

Fred Sammons, Inc.Box 32Brookfield, Il 60513

Helen Keller National Center111 Middle Neck RoadSands Point, NY 11050

IBMNational Support Center for Personswith DisabilitiesPO Box 2150Atlanta, GA 30301-2105

Job Accommodation Network918 Chestnut Ridge Road, Suite 1Morgantown, WV 26506-6080(800) ADA-WORK (voice & TDD)

(Continued)

National Rehabilitation InformationCenter (NARIC)8455 Colesville Road, Suite 935Silver Spring, MD 20910-3319

National Technology CenterAmerican Foundation for the Blind15 West 16th StreetNew York, NY 10011

Prentke Romich Company1022 Heyl RoadWooster, OH 44691

President’s Committee on Employ-ment of People With Disabilities1331 F Street, N. W., Suite 300Washington, DC 20004(202) 376-6200 (voice)(202) 376-6205 (TDD)

RESNA (Association for theAdvancement of RehabilitationTechnology)1700 North Monroe Street, Suite 1540Arlington, VA 22209-1903

Assistive technology cannot providesolutions for all challenges faced by the cus-tomer. For instance, it may be unwise to iden-tify a job with an extremely high productionstandard even if technology is available.Employment specialists should identify a sup-port team to include the customer; family mem-bers; employer; assistive technology vendors;occupational, physical, and speech therapists;and rehabilitation engineers to assist in iden-tifying technology for the workplace.

Assistive Technology Case StudyMonica is a young woman whose physi-

cal abilities are challenged by cerebral palsy.

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She found a job with the assistance of anemployment specialist entering data into acompany's mailing list. Her employmentspecialist identified that she had many abilitiesthat she could bring to the company, as well aschallenges that could be met with assistivetechnology and supported employment. Thesestrengths and challenges follow:

Monica's strengths:

# Types simple letters to friends and familymembers using a headpointer.

# Knows how to use a manual typewriter.

# Reads on a basic level, but she can copywhatever is written on the paper withaccuracy even if she can't read the words.

# Is very social and expresses an interest inlearning to use a computer for data entry.

# Uses a power chair for mobility.

# Can lift her right arm to shoulder height.

# Is extremely motivated to work.

Monica's work challenges:

# Can not use her fingers on either hand tograsp objects.

# Is not able to manipulate paper for dataentry.

# Must rely on others for daily careactivities.

# Does not have any computer training orprevious work experiences.

The first issue to solve was to determinehow Monica would manipulate paper for dataentry. Requests for the mailing list arrive at thecompany on telephone message pads, businesscards, and even scrap pieces of paper. Monicawould not be able to pick up these small piecesof paper and move them. This concern wasraised with Monica's supervisor who suggesteda solution to the problem. She offered to taperequests on a standard 8 ½ by 11" piece oftyping paper. After a page was full of requests,she would give these to Monica for data entry.

The next issue would be to determinehow Monica would move the sheets of typingpaper. It was decided that a standard secretarialstand could be attached to the side of her tableto hold the papers. A page turner could then beinstalled to drop the pages one at a time. Arehabilitation engineer was called to make thisdevice. In addition, he was asked to make adata entry guide that would move down thepage to assist Monica in visually keeping herplace. This required a two directional switchand a motor for the guide.

After working on these devices, therehabilitation engineer reported that he wassuccessful in producing the data entry guide butwas having difficulty developing the pageturner portion of the device. At this point, anoccupational therapist evaluated Monica todetermine if she would be able to move thepaper from the device without adding the pageturner. A task analysis revealed that she couldtake her head pointer and pull the top of thepaper forward. Once she had accomplishedthis, Monica could raise her arm to shoulder

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level and push the paper off the stand with theside of her hand. Timing Monica's physicalmovement revealed that she could push a sheetof paper off the typing stand within 30 seconds,a reasonable time for completion of the task.

Next, a keyguard was ordered from acomputer supply store and placed on thecomputer keyboard to assist Monica in strikingthe correct keys when typing. A software pro-gram, “sticky keys” was installed on her com-puter which eliminated the need for her todepress two keys simultaneously. The com-puter was placed on a table which had blocks toraise it to a comfortable work height. Finally,Monica's employment specialist designed taskanalyses and an instructional program to assisther in learning her job duties. This instruc-tional program was discussed earlier in theprompting section of this chapter.

CHANGE IN THE CUSTOMER’SJOB DUTIES

Sometimes, in spite of efforts to changethe instructional program, modify the work-place, or add assistive technology devices andservices, the customer still has difficulty per-forming a job duty (Moon et al., 1990). Inthese instances, the employment specialist mayneed to negotiate with the employer to deter-mine if a co-worker can share the job duty orswitch for one that is of equal responsibility.The customer, employer, co-worker(s), andemployment specialist should meet to discussthe alternatives. A change in the customer’sresponsibilities will necessitate the imple-mentation of a new instructional program fortraining him/her in performance of the new job

duties.

F ADING FROM THE JOB SITE

Once the worker has learned to performall the skills necessary correctly and indepen-dently, the employment specialist must ensurethat the performance of these duties are main-tained to company standards under naturallyoccurring supervision and reinforcement. Thefocus of training at this point is to increase theworker's independence while fading the em-ployment specialist's presence from the job site.Much of this will occur naturally if the em-ployment specialist has paid attention to in-cluding the supervisor and co-workers in theprogram design from day one of job-sitetraining.

For instance, as the customer beginsperforming steps in the task analysis indepen-dently, the employment specialist fades his orher presence from the immediate work area(e.g., the employment specialist is 3 feet awayfrom the customer and then 5 feet, etc.). Thisprocedure was described earlier in the datacollection section of this chapter. If planninghas been done correctly, the employmentspecialist is now ready to develop a fadingschedule for leaving the job site.

The customer's first time alone for partof the day is a significant step. The employ-ment specialist should explain to the customer,supervisor, and co-workers that he or she canbe contacted and will return to the job site

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immediately if needed. As the customercontinues to do well based on data results andsupervisor and co-worker comments, the em-ployment specialist gradually fades his or herpresence until the worker is alone for an entirework day. Initially, the employment specialistshould stop by the job site at the end of the dayto ensure that the customer is comfortable withthe fading schedule. The following guidelinesmay be useful when fading from the job site.

GUIDELINES FOR FADING FROMTHE JOB SITE

1. Discuss the fading schedule with thecustomer and supervisor.

2. Agree on a day to begin fading theemployment specialist's presence.

3. Inform the customer and co-workers (ifappropriate) that you are leaving thejob site and for how long.

4. Give the customer and supervisor atelephone number where the employ-ment specialist can be reached.

5. Leave for 1-2 hours for the first fadingsession.

6. Continue to collect probe, on/off task,and production data on the job duties.

7. Gradually increase your time off thesite as the customer continues to beindependent, until he or she is workingfor the entire day with the naturallyoccurring support of the workplace.

S UMMARY

Job-site training involves the directinstruction of job duties and related non-vocational skills. The employment specialist'srole is to facilitate the customer's successfulwork performance; be available for support tothe customer, supervisor, and co-workers; and

to fade from the job site as quickly as possible. Once the employment specialist has imple-

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mented the procedures outlined in this chapterbased on the support needs of the customer,and the worker is independently completing hisor her job under naturally occurringsupervision of the job site, the employmentspecialist moves into the follow-along phase ofsupported employment.

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A PPENDIX

# Sequence of Job Duties Form

# Task Analysis Form

# Percent Time On-Task Data Form

# Production Rate Recording Form

203

VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITYREHABILITATION RESEARCH AND TRAINING CENTER

Sequence of Job Duties Form

[ ] Daily [ ] Varies day-to-day (Job duties remain (If checked here, complete a the same from day-to-day separate form for each different

sequence) If above box is checked, indicate day for which this form is completed:

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun

Approximate Time Job Duty

Comments:

SIGNATURE/TITLE: DATE:

© Virginia Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research & Training Center on Supported Employment, 1997

204

Task Analysis FormTrainer:Customer:Environment:Work Cue:

Data Collection: + independent correct response m model prompt- incorrect response p physical promptv verbal prompt

© Virginia Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research & Training Center on Supported Employment, 1997

205

Percent Time On-Task DataEmployee: Job Site:

Trainer: Job Title:

Date ObservationPeriod

TimeStart

TimeEnd

1-Minute Intervals(+) = On-Task; (-) = Off-Task

%TimeOn-

Task

JobDuty

Definitions:

On-Task:

Off-Task:

© Virginia Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research & Training Center on Supported Employment, 1997

Production Rate Recording Form

206

Name: Month:

Task: Standard:

DateTime Begin

TaskTime End

Task Total TimeUnits

Completed% of

Standard

Standard is the average number of units completed by co-workers performing the same taskwithin a specified time period, or the standard can be the length of time that it takes the co-workers to complete the job duty.

Calculate standard by 1.) dividing the number of units that the customer completes in the time period by thecompany standard or 2.) dividing the company standard (length of time to complete the job duty) by the length oftime it takes the customer to complete the duty to arrive at the customer's production rate.

© Virginia Commonwealth University, Rehabilitation Research & Training Center on supported Employment, 1997