5. ELEMENTI 16 GRUPE

7/23/2019 5. ELEMENTI 16 GRUPE

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CJCICH^M 01( K_SVC ,QM @-

L`jegkchm cjcichtm,h`dvmc z`stupjdchm u run`i`-

GRGOMHC K_SVC

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3p1 3n06 1s?1p>

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3/75

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4/75

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5/75

RVGDCQM cst cjcetrgh` u z`nhdci ev`hthgi hgvgu4

imhmi`jhm stcpch gesmn`bmdc z` svc cjcichtc dc )?5

gsmi emsme`* pr`vc spgdcvc s` iès( stcpchgi gesmn`bmdc %15

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)?*%?* %>* m %1(

emsme hc pr`vm spgdcvc s` pgzmtmvhmi stcpchgi gesmn`bmdc* gsmi s`

ajugrgi egdm dc cjcetrghck`tmvhmdm gn hdck`* prm ciu sc stv`r`nmgesmkchmje`tdgh G??%(

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u spgdcvmi` s` cjcichtmi` i`hdc cjcetrghck`tmvhgstm

spgdcvm s` vgnmegi* L?G* L?R* L?Rc* L? c(

Rtòmjhgst gp`n` u hmzu4 L?G L?R L?Rc L? c(

Ssjmdcn h`st`d`hd` vgnmegvc vczc egd` dc uzrgegv`h` vcjmegi

cjcetrghck`tmvhgu emsme`* ngj`zm ng `sgbmd`bmdc igjceuj` L?G* p` dcvgn` u hgri`jhmi usjgvmi` u tchgi st`hdu* nge su L?R* L?Rc m L? cpjmhgvm* hcprmd`thgk imrms` m gtrgvhm(


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Qgn` dc sjòg nmsgbmr`hm spgd m mstgvrcichg pge`zudc

pgndcnhèg emscj` m o`zmh` svgdstv`4

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emscjg zogk prgtgjmtmeml rcèbmd`4

L?R L% % LR) ?L% %R?) E09


7/75

Vgtg su L?R* L?Rc m L?^c sjòc emscjmhc* tg su R?))*Rc?)) m ^c?))dghm dèc eghdukgv`hc o`zc* p` r`stvgrjdmvm

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Mèg svèm gn l`jegkchml cjcich`t` mi` pg nv`

hcsp`rch` cjcetrgh`* ghm igku rc`kgv`tm icusgohgtèg n` sc spgdc `hkùdum pg dcn`h cjcetrgh* ngenrukm cjcetrgh gst`dc z` gstv`rmv`hdc vcz` s` nrukmi

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Gvè`v spgd dc h`trmdcv nmsujamn* H`?R?(


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stcpch gesmn`bmdc 6

Rpgdcvm stcpch` gesmn`bmdc %?

nml`jgkchmnm m gesmnm* suipgrgv ,MM- ljgrmn* RBj?5 tcjur,MM- gesmn`*

cG Rpgdcvm stcpch` gesmn`bmdc %2

suipgr,MMM- gesmn* R?G2* lmpgnmsujamth` emscjmh`* L?R?G> m hdchcsgjm lmpgnmsujamtm

Rpgdcvm stcpch` gesmn`bmdc %>

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9/75

Gesmn`bmdsem stcpch %? ) nml`jgkchmnm m gesmnm( Rvm

spgdcvm gvgk gesmn`bmdsegk orgd` su hcstòmjhm(

Nmajugrmnc hc pr`vc R* Rc* c m Vg* nmljgrmnm pgstgdcsìg egn suipgr`* tcjur` m pgjghmd`* nmorgimnm egn

tcjur` m pgjghmd`* ` nmdgnmnm hm egn dcnhgk cjcicht`

gvc krupc(

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suipgr( g su suipgr,MMM- gesmn* R?G2* lmpgnmsujamthèmscjmh` L?R?G> m hdchc sgjm lmpgnmsujamtm(


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Rvm cjcichtm* mzuzcv G* kr`nc spgdcvc s` gesmn`bmdsemi

stcpchgi %>(

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ciu h`st`du sujamth` L?RG2 m scjchmth` L?RcG2 emscjmh`4

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emscjmhì` m o`zì`* p` prci` tgic mi` ìagtcr`h e`rètcr(

D`mh` gvml emscjmh` gp`n` u hmzu gn suipgr` prci` tcjuru*


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Rpgdcvm stcpch` gesmn`bmdc %1

Lces`ajugrmnm ,RA1* ^cA1 -

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tcjur`th`* L1 cG1-

m nv` hmz` sgjm emscjmh` ,lmnrgkchsuja`tm m

lmnrgkchscjch`tm* suja`tm m scjch`tm-


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EMRME h`dr`sprgstr`hdchmdm cjcicht u zcijdmhgd egrm* i`schm unmg

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zrèu mzhgsm ?0 #* i`schm unmg ?2#(

s`nr`h u vgnm u vrjg vcjmemi egjmmhì` u vcz`hgi st`hdu* `prmsut`h dc m cjcicht`rhm emsme r`stvgrch u vgnm(

emsme m hdckgvm spgdcvm ) mzuzcthg zh``dhm z` mvgt svml mvmlom`( Trè* td( sjgognhm emsme dc hcgplgn`h z` hdmlgvg nms`hdc(Nms`hdc dc sjgchm gesmn`bmdsem prgbcs prm egdci sc r`zvmd`tgpjgt`* z`lv`jdudum egdgd jdunseg tmdcjg mi` tcipcr`turu 21*3)2;gB(

T` dcn`h s`t gvdceu dc pgtrcohg vmc gn 366 ni

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Bi,L?G-h % iG? iBG?,k- % hL?G % Chcrkmd`

Gv` nv` prgbcs` prcnst`vjd`du st`jhm eruhm tge u prmrgnm(


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Ngomv`hdc emsme`4

J`ogr`tgrmdsem4

`- ?EBjG2 ?EBj,s- % 2G?,k-

o- ?LkG,s- ?Lk % G?,k-

b- ;366B

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3666B

Mhnustrmdsem4

ue`pjdmv`hdci zr`e` mjm cjcetrgjmzgi vgnc


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Chcrkctsem nmd`kr`i igjceujseml gromt`j` z` G?


16/75

Emsme sc sp`d` s` vcmhgi cjcich`t` u VR ,gsmi s`pjcichmtmi k`sgvmi`* ajugrgi* ljgrgi* orgigi*mgngi* zj`tgi m pj`tmhgi-)prgbcs gesmn`bmdc(

@tgi emsme` sc vcc prctchg egv`jchthmi vczì`s` nrukmi `tgimi`* m tg tèg n` mhm nvmdc prctchgegv`jchthc vczc(

@tgi emsme`* ` pghce`n m igjceuj` emsme`* igcprmimtm nv` cjcetrgh`* prm ciu h`st`du dghm s` nv`hck`tmvh` hògd`* G?)* gnhgshg G?

?) * kndc dc vczèmsme` s` nrukmi `tgimi` prctchgdghse`( ^èvmspgdcvm igku h`st`tm sìg s cjcichtmi` h`di`hdc

cjcetrghck`tmvhgstm( _mdcteg* `tgi emsme` igc mzkuomtm cjcetrgh ,hpr( u

spgdu G?%VtA1

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mst emsme dc gp`s`h k`s dcr sc u hdciu tv`rm jècgesmnmr`du m ogjdc kgrc(

Num ogr`vè u `tigsacrm ocz emsme` ngvgnm ngprcst`hè` mvgt` gvdcmdck grk`hmzi`(

@eg eghbchtr`bmd` emsme` u v`znulu sp`nhc h` 0;#*

hmsu prmidcchc tcthc pgsjdcnmbc(

mst emsme igc sc unms`tm er`teg vrmdcic oczpgsjdcnmb` m upgtrcojd`v` sc egn gmvjd`v`hd`n`vjdchme`* gsgo` trgv`hml BG m u sju`du gsjòjdchgk

r`n` pju`( Vrm nuci unms`hdu mstgk emsme` tdcjcsh` tcipcr`t(

h`kjg r`stc zogk uorz`hd` ictògjmeml prgbcs`(


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Emsme mi` zh``dhu prmidchu u icnmbmhm* e`n` sucvmnchthc pgtcegc u nms`hdu* hpr( prm trgv`hdu

gtrgvhmi pjmhgvmi` mjm egn up`jc pju`( ^ n` sc egrmstmsidcs` emsme` m zrè` u gidcru 040(

Ridcs` G?%BG?sc prmidchdudc egn vdctègknms`hd`* u `vmghgi`* pgnigrhmbì`(

Emsme sc egrmstm u gesm`bctmjchsemi kgrmghmbmi` z`pgstmz`hdc vmsgeml tcipcr`tur` tg mi` prmidchu urcz`hdu m z`v`rmv`hdu ict`j`(

Vgrcn `tgi` emsme` s` i`sgi 01* pgzh`t su mzgtgpm

s` i`sì` 0; m 0


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Gzgh G

2trg`tgih` igjceuj` emsme`* nruk` `jgtrgpse`

ignmame`bmd`* vrjg ètmvh` m hcpgstgd`h`(

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egjmmh` gzgh` u r`vhgtcm s emsmegi zh`thg r`stc( H`st`hè gzgh` mz `tgi` m igjceuj` emsme` dc

ckzgtcrih` rcèbmd`(


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Gzgh* G2 h`st`dc rcèbmdgi4

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_czgh`hth` cjcetrghse` struetur` gzgh`4

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pjmh pj`vg ng pj`vgjduom`stc ogdc* u i`jmi egjmmhì` vrjgprmd`thgk imrms`* ` u vcmi imrms` h` omdcjm jue mjm ljgr(

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21/75

gzgh dc mzuzcthg dèg gesmn`bmdseg srcnstvg* dcnmhg dcajugr d`m gesmn`hs gn G2(

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jèg gesmnmr` hcz`smchc grk`hsec spgdcvc( Egrmstm sc z` stcrmjmz`bmdu vgnc m z` omdcjdchdc(

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rupcegdc su sc pgd`vmjc z`nhdml ncsctjdc` suukj`vhgi mz`zv`hc ndcjgv`hdci spgdcv` mz krupcarcgh` egdm ngspmdcv`du u `tigsacru mz urc`d` z`lj`chdc m sprcd)ogmb`(


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gzgh gesmn`bmdgi uhmt`v` o`etcrmdc* upgtrcojd`v` sce`g nczmhacebmghg srcnstvg z` prcm`v`hdc vgnc

vcml vgngvgn`( Nczmhameudc vgnuh` t`d h`mh tggesmnmc grk`hsec tv`rm(

Gzghmzgv`hm v`znul sc upgtrcojd`v` z` vchtmj`bmdu

r`nhml prgstgrmd`* pgnzcihml cjdczhmb` m vcmlnvgr`h`(


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RVGDCQM EMRME@

stcpch gesmn`bmdc?4

Gesmnm4 B`G* RG?* m gesm)spgdcvmH`?RG>* L2VG> mtn(

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0( h` gshgvu emscjg)o`zhml e`rètcrmstme`4 emscjm* o`zhm * ìagtcrhm mhcutr`jhm

`- Emscjm gesmnm4 u vgnchmi r`stvgrmi` n`du emscju rcèbmdu5 r`stv`r`dusc u o`zì`5 nmrcethg hcutr`jmu o`zc 4

RG2 u vgnchmi r`stvgrmi` n`dc emscju rcèbmdu4

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% ?H`GL,j-

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o- O`zhm gesmnm4 u vgnchmi r`stvgrmi` n`du o`zhu rcèbmdu5 r`stv`r`du sc uemscjmhì`5 nmrcethg hcutr`jmu emscjmhc 4

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gnhgshg igku hcutr`jms`tm m emscjmhc m o`zc4

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n- Hcutr`jhm gesmnm4 hc rc`kudu s vgngi5 hc r`stv`r`du sc hm u emscjmhì`hm u o`zì`5 hc igku hcutr`jms`tm hm emscjmhc hm o`zc ,BG* H?G m HG-(


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Ngomv`hdc gesmn`40( Nmrcethgi smhtczgi mz cjcich`t`4

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,HL>-?Br?G; ,s- Br?G2,s- % H?,k- % >L?G,k-


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>( Vrchdci sujamn` ,gesmn`bmdgi h` zrèu-4ThR,s- % 0*3G?,k- ThG,s- % RG? ,k-

3( Qrjg dèmi zèmscjd`v`hdci hceml sgjm ,vgjarì`t`-4[G>

?) % ?L% [G2,s- % L?GQgn dc h`dv`hmdm gesmn(

Mghm B`?%* Ik?% m Ac?%stv`r`du hcr`stvgrjdmvc prgnuetctvrn` vgn`(^vrng` vgnc )ueup`h s`nr`d `hgrk`hseml supst`hbm u vgnm(

prgj`zh` mjm e`rogh`th`* prmsut`h mgh LBG2) m pgichutm mghm5

st`jh` mjm hce`rogh`th`* prmsut`h hcem nrukm `hmgh ` hcLBG2

) * m pgichutm mghm

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cevmv`jchth` i`schgd eghbchtr`bmdm B`G gn 06 ik ni)2*

)0 ar`hbusem stcpch tvrngc gnkgv`r` egjmmhm ict`jhml dgh` egd` dc

cevmv`jchth` i`schgd eghbchtr`bmdm B`BG2 gn 06 ik ni)2(


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Igjceuj` vgnc dc trgeut`stc strueturc* s` ukjgi gn 06>*3gmzicu nvmdc G)L)vczc( Togk vcjmec r`zjmec u cjcetrghck`tmvhgstmmzicu vgnme` m emsme`* igjceuj vgnc dc nmpgjhgk e`rètcr`* tc suigjceujc vgnc `sgbmr`hc*eèg u tchgi* tèg m u vrstgist`hdu(

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tg prgstgrhg n`dc tctr`cn`rseu strueturu( ^ctr`cnrm sc n`jdc egiomhmr`du u prgstgru pgput s`` stv`r`dum

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30/75

Qgn` mi` vcjmeu rcj`tmvhu pcrimtmvhgst m ngo`r dc r`stv`r` prmdcsvck` z` supst`hbc s` dghsegi m pgj`rhgi egv`jchthgivczgi( S tèvmi r`stvgrmi`* gsmi mhtcrèbmd` Q`h ncr[``jsgvgk tmp`* pgstgdc m d`c vczc* dcr vgn` igc omtm m jmk`hn(

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31/75

Vrgj`zh` mjm e`rogh`th` tvrng` uej`hd` sc4`- eul`hdci vgnc dcr sc gnvmd` pgvr`th` rc`ebmd` p` sc mz

r`stvgr` uej`hd` BG?4

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)

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mgh egdm ghn` t`jgm B`?%

LBG2) % GL) BG2?) % L?G


32/75

c- ngn`tegi e`jbmd lmnrgesmn` ,pgstup`e s v`phgi m sgngi-4

B`?% % ?LBG2) % B`?% % ?GL) ?B`BG2 ,s- % ?L?G

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?GL)sigj` % RG>?) % ?L% RG>)sigj` % ?L?G


33/75

dghgmzidchdmv`m su vmsgegpgjmicrmzmr`hc grk`hsec supst`hbcegdc s`nrc emscjc hpr( _)RG2)L

%) mjm o`zmhc hpr( _)H,BL2-2%GL

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34/75


35/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc

0

Vcrgesmnm spgdcvm u egdmi` sc vcz` emsme)emsme r`zomd` prm vmsgegdtcipcr`turm(

Ngomv`hdc o`rmdcvgk pcrgesmn`* O`G?* z`krmd`v`hdcicjcicht`rhgk o`rmd` s emsmegi n`jdmi z`krmd`v`hdci sc r`zj`c4

O`G?,s- ?O`G % G?,k- rL 9 012 eD'igj

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) L?R?G< % ?c)

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36/75

T`krmd`v`hdci L?R?G< lmnrgjmzmr` h`dprmdc u pcrgesgsuja`thuemscjmhu* L?RG3

L?R?G< % L?G L?RG3 % L% % LRG>)

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mstm L G dc oc ogdh` tchgst egd` sc jèg r` j`c pg rcèbmdm


37/75

mstm L?G?dc oczogdh` tchgst egd` sc jèg r`zj`c pg rcèbmdm

)0 )? 6

L?G? ? L?G % G?,k- S vgnchmi r`stvgrmi` dc sjò` emscjmh` egd` nmsgbmr` u nv`

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srcnstvg z` omdcjdchdc(

A`ri`bcutseu prmidchu mi` h`dcc 2#)thm r`stvgr egdm

r`z`r` ihgkc p`tgkchc oètcrmdc(


38/75

Vcrgesmnhm mgh dc d`e` o`z` egd` prgtgjmtmem rc`kudc svgngi

G??) % ?L?G L?G? % ?GL)

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,cjcicht`rhm emsme-

L?G? G?,k- % ?L% % ?c) C69 ) 6*1= Q


39/75

Mz r`stvgr` dgnmn` mzjuudu cjcicht`rhm dgnL?G? % ?M

) % ?L% M?,s- % ?L?G

_cnueudc emscjc r`stvgrc pcri`hk`h`t`3L?G? ?IhG>

) % 1L% 3G?,k- % ?Ih?% %


40/75

L?G? )gesmn`bmdseg srcnstvg* srcnstvg z` omdcjdchdc(

S icnmbmhm sc upgtrcojd`v` 2# r`stvgr e`g nczmhacebmdsegsrcnstvg( Nczmhacebmdseg ndcjgv`hdc L?G?pgtmc gnh`sbchthgk emsme` egdm sc gsjgo`` r`sp`n`hdci L?G? (

Mz 0 k 2# L?G?gsjgo`` sc ?6 bi2 G? (

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e`t`jmzc m pcrgesmn`zc egdm mhtchzmvmr`du r`sp`n`hdc L?G? (

A`ri`bcutseu prmidchu mi` h`dcc 2#)thm r`stvgr

L?G? egdm uspdchg r`z`r` ihgkc p`tgkchc o`etcrmdc(


41/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc

0'?

Rupcrgesmnm* spgdcvm tmp` IG? s` cjcichtmi` 0( krupc

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)0'? 6?EG?,s- % L?G G?,k- % LG?) % ?E%% GL)

RSIVG_


42/75

RSIVG_ i`schm unmg u Tcijdmhgd egrm 9 6*63#

d`vjd` sc sjgogn`h m u gojmeu suja`t` m sujamn`

u vcz`hgi gojmeu h`j`zm sc h`dcc u imhcr`jmi`4 pmrmtu*AcR?* l`jegpmrmtu* BuAcR?* k`jchmtu* VoR* kmpsu* B`RG>x ? L?G m nr(

Cjcicht`rhm suipgr dc gomhg vuje`hsegk pgrmdcej` mjm sch`j`zm u h`sj`kì` mspgn pmdcse` m si`tr` sc n` dc

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sc igc god`shmtm icusgohmi ndcjgv`hdci nv` pjmhgvmt`suipgrh` spgd` suipgrvgnme`* L?R m suipgr,MQ- gesmn`RG?(

prmsut`h m u suipgrhmi vgnì` u egdmi` sc h`j`zmr`stvgrchm L?R(

u i`jmi egjmmhì` h`j`zm sc u hcemi odcj`hcvmhì`pgtrcohmi z` jdunsem mvgt(


43/75

Ngomv` sc h` ? h`mh`40( Ar`sblgvmi pgstupegimz prmrgnhml jcmt` ,mstgc =1 eD'igj

Ngomvchm R dc r`st`jdch

gh g s s` c z` g v`h c pg


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gh g s s` c z` g v`h c pgAr`sblu


45/75

Bj`usgv pgstup`e z` ngomv`hdc suipgr`


46/75

R dc h` sgohgd tcipcr`turm u vrstgi st`hdu* svmdctjgut* ocz ueus` m imrms`

hcr`stvgrjdmv u vgnm* r`stvgrjdmv u ihgkmi grk`hsemir`stv`r`mi` ,BR?* BBj>-(

Rj`og prgvgnm tgpjgtu m cjcetrmbmtct(

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vuje`hmz`bmdu kui` m z` prgmzvgnhdu o`rut`5 z`ngomv`hdc spgdcv` ,BR?* R?Bj?- m e`g auhkmbmn u

pgjdgprmvrcnm(

Vr`vm spgdcvc s hck`tmvhmi m pgzmtmvhmi stcpchmi`

gesmn`bmdc(

Ignmame`bmdc cjcicht`rhgk s ipgr`


47/75

Ignmame`bmdc cjcicht`rhgk suipgr`

Gshgvh` struetur` prstch`st` R


48/75

H`dzh``dhmdc su trm `jgtrgpsec ignmame`bmdc suipgr`*rgipsem* ighgejmhsem m `igrahm(

H` gomhgd tcipcr`turm* st`omj`h dc rgipsem suipgr* egdmh` =3*3gB rcvcrzmomjhg prcj`zm u ighgejmhsem ,mi`du

igjceuju R


49/75

d p k d d dh`kjg glj`nm* prcj`zm u ireu cj`stmhu i`su tzv( ìgrahm mjmpj`stmhm suipgregdm sc s`stgdm mz nukgk hmz` R)`tgi`( Ngomv`sc numi z`krmd`v`hdci r`stgpjdchgk suipgr` m ujmdcv`hdci ulj`nhu vgnu(

S a`ri`bmdm ngj`zc trm agric mstgk suipgr`4 sujaur ncpur`tui,prcmchm suipgr-* sujaur suojmi`tui ,ngomvch prgbcsgisuojmi`bmdc- m sujaur prcbmp`t`tui,ngomvch t`jgchdci-(Rujaur suojmi`tui sc ngomv` suojmi`bmdgi suipgr` h` 0?3 B(

Rujaur ncpur`tuisc pgsjmdc gorùdc s` HL>GL* tèg n` scprmsuthc emscjmhc prcvgnc u ìghmdcvc sgjm* ` @s?R2 m @s?G2 scprcvgnc u ìghmdcv `rschmt m ìghmdcv suja`rschmt4

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Rpgjd` sc upgtrcojd`v` z` jmdcchdc r`zhml eghml ogjcstm(^`jgchm suipgr ,sujaur prcbmpmt`tuisc ngomv` kr`chdcipgjmsujamn` m hdmlgvmi r`z`r`hdci ,vrjg smt`h-( Spgtrcojd`v` scspgjd` u gojmeu i`stm m mhtcrhg( Gtgpjdch u ujdu u gojmeu mhdcebmdùpgtrcojd`v` sc z` jmdcchdc lrghmhgk rcui`tmzi`(


50/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc

?

Rujamnm* sgjm vgnchgk r`stvgr` L?R ,m lmnrgkchsujamnm-4Ruipgrvgnme* r`stv`r` sc u vgnm* rc`kudc emscjg4

L?R,k-L% % LR)?L

% % R?)

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)? 6

?Ac2% % L?R,k- ?Ac?% % R,s- % ?L%

t L R t d d e e mnm m R, ?-


51/75

r`stvgr L?R st`d`hdci h` zr`eu sc gesmnmr` mz R,)?- ucjcicht`rhm suipgr4

?L?R,k- % G? ?R,s- % ?L?G

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LR)% >Bj?,k- % >L?G,k- LRG>) % L

% 3LRG>) %


52/75

RujamnmNgomv`hdc4

0( ndcjgv`hdci L?R mjm tgpjdmvml sujamn` h` ict`jhc mghc

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?( nmrcethmi sp`d`hdci cjcich`t`

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% ?R,k-

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> t jm md n ml t je jmd eml jamn L R


53/75

>( hcutr`jmz`bmdgi vgnchml r`stvgr` `je`jmdseml sujamn` s L?R

?H`% % ?GL) % L?R,k- ?H`% % R?) % ?L?G

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p` sc ngomdc H`?R(=L?G mjm H`LR

( 2L?G

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54/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc0 m gst`jm hck`tmvhm stcpchm gesmn`bmdc

Nmsujamnm ,pcrsujamnm- m pgjmsujamnm

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vmegi suipgr` ,H`?Rx kndc dc x9 gn ? ng 3* i`x( =-

t e mn md 0


55/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc %0

Ruipgrhm l`jgkchmnm tmp` R?\?*

Ruipgr,M- ljgrmn* R?Bj?

stcpch gesmn`bmdc %?

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su st`omjhm u vrstgi st`hdu* uo`zhgd srcnmhm su d`e` rcnuebmdse` srcnstv`

stcpch gesmn`bmdc %>


56/75

stcpch gesmn`bmdc %>

^ctr`l`jgkchmnm* suipgr tctr`ajugrmn mjm suipgr,MQ- ajugrmn*RA>* suipgr nmgesmn* RG? m sujamth` emscjmh`* L?RG2 mhdczmhc sgjm(

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R,s- % G?,k- RG?,k- rL 9 )?


57/75

Ruipgrgv,MQ- gesmn* RG? dc h` sgohgd tcipcr`turm k`sgvmt*gtrgv`hgtrgk* hcukgnhgk* ogbe`vgk imrms`

j`eg rc`kudc s vgngi ,emscj` rc`ebmd`- n`dum dghc4

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vgnchgk r`stvgr`4

B`,GL-?

% ?RG?,k-

B`,LRG2

-?


58/75

RG? dc pgj`rh` igjceuj`* j`eg sc ue`pjdudc(

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59/75

Ruipgrgv nmgesmn

nr`m m h`p`n` sjuzhmbu(

ndcjudc nczmhacebmghg* uomd` kjdmvmbc m oètcrmdc(

dè ervhm gtrgv5 sirt h`stup` zogk kuchd`5

egn èuthml trgv`hd` ngj`zm ng vcml gtcchd`

sjuzgegc gmdu m hgs`(omjdec su dèg gsdctjdmvc h` pgvc`hc eghbchtr`bmdc

RG? u v`znulu(


60/75


h`dv`hmdm4 lces`ajugrmn RA1* R?A06* suipgrgv,QM-gesmn* suipgrh` emscjmh` m hdczmhc sgjm* l`jgkch)

ncrmv`tm suja`thc emscjmhc* tc pcrgesgsuja`thc emscjmhc

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?RG? % G?,k- ?RG2,k- rL 9 )?;6 eD'igj

rc`ebmd` dc ckzgtcrih` m pgr`stgi tcipcr`turc RG2sc r`sp`n`

J o t md em n om md d nm ja t


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J`ogr`tgrmdsem sc ngomv` z`krmd`v`hdci nmicc suja`thcemscjmhc4

L?R?G; L?RG> % RG2,k-

Mjm z`krmd`v`hdci e`jmd lmnrgkchsuja`t`4

?ELRG>,s- E?R?G; % L?G,k-E?R?G;,s- E?RG>,s- % RG2,k-

Mjm ncstmj`bmdgi AcRG> mjm Ac?,RG>-2

Ac?,RG>-2,s- Ac?G2,s- % 2RG2,k-


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H` sgohgd tcipcr`turm RG2 dc u tchgi st`hdu*r`slj`mv`hdci h` 01*


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Ruipgrh` ,suja`th`- emscjmh * L?RG>

Ngomv`hdc4

r`stv`r`hdci RG2 u vgnm4

RG2,k- % L?G L?RG> rL 9 ) Vrmhbmp4 gesmn`bmd` RG?pgigu hmtrgzhgkk`s` egdm sc

ukj`vhgi s`stgdm gn HG?* ngomdchgk ndcjgv`hdci eghb(suja`thc emscjmhc h` eghbchtrmr`hu hmtr`thu emscjmhu(

Gesmn`bmd` pgigu hmtrgzhgk k`s` sc vrm u prmsustvuvgnc( H`st`jm HG sc gesmnmr` u HG? egdm prcnst`vjd`prchgsmgb` emsme` u prgbcsu( Gvmi pgstupegi sc ngomd`emscjmh` mdm dc i`esmi`jhm i`schm unmg ;6#(


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?( eght`ethm pgstup`e

e`t`jmz`tgr ,v`h`nmdcvm gesmnm-

?RG?,k- % G?,k- ?RG2,k- rL 9 )0


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Rgjm L?RG>4

Lmnrgkchsuja`tm ,u vgnchgi r`stvgru rc`kudu emscjg-* H`LRG>m ELRG>5 z`krmd`v`hdci prcj`zc u nmsuja`tc ,pmrgsuja`tc-4

?H`LRG>,s- H`?R?G;,s- % L?G,k-

m n`jdmi krmd`hdci u suja`tc m RG24

H`?R?G;,s- H`?RG>,s- % RG2,k-

Gsjgogchm RG2rc`kudc s hctgpjdmvmi gesmngi stv`r`dumtgpjdmvm suja`t4

Br?G2,s- % 2RG2,k- Br?,RG>-2,s-

Ruja`tmsu r`stvgrjdmvm u vgnm*

lmnr`tmzmr`hm s hcp`rhmi orgdci igjceuj` vgnc* ,k`jmbc-4IMMRG>

;L?G ,IMM 9 Ih?%* Bg?%* Hm?%* Th?%* Ac?% - mjm

BuRG> 3)2)0 L?G5

nvgstruem suja`tm4

`j`uhm mjm stmpsc s`st`v` IMIMMM,RG>-?0?L?G m

chmtms`st`v` I?MIMM,RG>-?1L?G


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Rvgdstv` L?RG>4 mst` emscjmh` dc oczogdh`* ujd`st`tchgst( R` vgngi sc imdc` u sv`egi gidcru* `jm dc

hdchg r`stv`r`hdc u vgnm vrjg ckzgtcrihg(`- emscjmhseg ndcjgv`hdc

L?RG> L% % LRG>)

LRG>) L% % RG> ?)

?L?RG> L2RG>% % LRG>)


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o- gesmn`bmdseg ndcjgv`hdc

Emscjmh` eghb( 0 igj'ni2

dc srcnhdc d`eg gesmn`b(srcnstvg* nge dc eghbchtrgv`h` emscjmh` d`eg

gesmn`bmdseg srcnstvg egdc gt`p` ict`jc

6 %1 %>

Bu,s- % 2L% %LRG>) Bu?% % RG?,k- % L?G

gesmnmr` cjcicht`rhm R4

6 %1 %>R,s- % ?L?RG> 2RG?,k- % ?L?G,k-


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b- nclmnr`t`bmdseg ndcjgv`hdc

mst` emscjmh` vcc h` scoc vgnu ,srcnstvg z`

suchdc-* h`st`du t`hg ncamhms`hm lmnr`tm4L?RG>* L?RG>L?G* L?RG> ?L?G* L?RG>>L?G

gnuzmi` vj`ku grk`hsemi supst`hbì`* ` grk`hsec

supst`hbc sc prm tgic ukjdchmu4

B0?L??G00,s- 0? B,s- % 00 L?G

ccr ,s`l`rgz`-

L`jgkchsem ncrmv`tmsuja`thc emscjmhc4

ighg)ncrmv`tm ,l`jgkchgsuja`thc emscjmhc h`st`duzìdchgi dcnhc GL)krupc- m

nm)ncrmv`tm ,l`jgkchgsujagh`thc emscjmhc h`st`du

zìdchgi nvmdc GL)krupc-(

L RG? >


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L`jgkchgsuja`thc emscjmhc,ajugrgsuja`th`* LRG2A m ljgrgsuja`th`* LRG2Bj-

h`st`du ndcjgv`hdci l`jgkchgvgnme` h` gjcui4

RG2 % LBj LRG2BjRG2 % LA LRG2A

Vcrgesgjuja`thc emscjmhc4Vcrgesgnmsuja`th` emscjmh` ,pcrgesgnmsuipgrh`-* L?R?G4

?LRG>) R?G


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^mgemscjmhc ,gesm)spgdcvm u egdmi` dc dcn`h mjm vmc `tgièmsme` zìmdchdchg `tgimi` suipgr`-4

lmpgtctse` tmgsuipgrh` emscjmh`* L?R?G2m hdch` sgH`?R?G2

egd` sc ngomd` eul`hdci h`trmd sujamt` s` cjcicht`rhmi R4

RG2?)

% R,s- R?G2?)

Rtrueturh` agriuj` tmgsuja`thgk mgh`4

R?G2?)dc srcnhdc dè rcnubchs4

?R?G2?)

R>G1?) %?c) C6 9 %6*6< Qprm ciu sc stv`r` tctr`tmgh`thm mgh* R>G1?)

RCJCH


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RCJCH

rmdcnè cjcicht* e`g zj`tg

pr`tmj`b suipgr` m scjchmn`

ngomv` sc e`g husprgnuet prm cjcetrgjmtsegd ràmh`bmdm

oèr`

Rc


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Rcjch dc sjm`h suipgru m dcnh`eg e`g suipgr pgd`vjdudcsc u hcegjmeg `jgtrgpseml ignmame`bmd`(

H`dc` dc brh` ignmame`bmd` scjch` s` `igrahgistrueturgi(

Brvch` ignmame`bmd` mjm brvchm scjch sc s`stgdm gn

prstch`stml igjceuj` Rc


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Rcjchgvgnme* L?Rc dc pjmh hcukgnhgk imrms`*r`stv`r`hdci u vgnm n`dc emscjmhu egd` nmsgbmr` u nv`stcpch`4

L?Rc L% % LRc) ?L% %Rc?)

Rcjchgv nmgesmn mjm scjch,MQ- gesmn* RcG?* dc vrst`supst`hb` egd` sc r`stv`r` u vgnm n`dum scjchmthuemscjmhu ,scjch`stu-* L?RcG2(

Rcjchgv,QM- gesmn* RcG2

Rcjch`th` ,scjchse`- emscjmh * L?RcG>*dèg gesmn`bmghg m nclmnr`t`bmghg srcnstvg* Rjòmd` dc gnsuja`thc ems(* `jm dc dèg gesmn`bmdseg srcnstvg m d`c gnsuja`thc emscjmhc Cg90*03Q* igc n` gesmnmr` m pjcichmtcict`jc(

^CJS_


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^CJS_

rmdcnè e`g scjch* rdcm pr`tmj`b R

tcjurmnm su pr`tmgbm sujamn` oèr` m gjgv`^cjurgvgnme* L?^c dc gtrgvhm k`s hcukgnh` imrms`*r`stv`r` sc u vgnm

^cjurgv nmgesmn mjm tcjurgv,MQ- gesmn* ^cG?* sjòg scr`stv`r` u vgnm n`dum tcjurmthu emscjmhu ,tcjur`stu-L?^cG24

cG? % L?G L? cG2

Rgjm tcjurmthc emscjmhc4 lmnrgkchtcjurmtm m tcjurmtm

^cjur`th` emscjmh` ,tcjurh - L1^cG1,L?^cG>-h pgjmict`tcjur`th` ems(

Rvm spgdcvm Rc m c su gtrgvhm* dcnhèg e`g m suipgrgvm spgdcvm )lcimd`gvml spgdcv` hmdc ngvgjdhg mzuch`(Imrms scjch` m tcjur` dc hcpgnhgjdmv* jèg sc upmdc u egu m spgrggnstr`hdudc(


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VGJGHMD r`nmgètmv`h* vrjg gp`s`h* prmsut`h u runì` ur`h`(

Vrvm put ngomvch cestrèbmdgi mz gvml run`(

N`h`s sc ngomv` msejdumvg vdctèmi putci(

Hci` zh``dhmdu prmidchu(

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5. ELEMENTI 16 GRUPE