1. Cognitivism

2. Last Week: Behaviourism 3. Cognitivism The cognitivist revolutionreplaced behaviourism in1960s/1970s as the dominantparadigm. We recall Chomskys argumentthat language could not beacquired purely throughconditioning (even thoughradical behaviourists neverargued that), and must be atleast partly explained by theexistence of internal mentalstates. 4. Cognitivism Cognitivism argues that the black box of themind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an informationprocessor. or a computer 5. Cognitivism Mental processes such as thinking, memory,knowing, and problem-solving need to beexplored. Knowledge can be seen as schema orsymbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learnersschemata. 6. SHOCK HORROR - DISMAY There is a great deal of ambiguity in theeducation literature as to what constitutesCognitivism, and how it different fromConstructivism What follows is my take on things 7. SHOCK HORROR - DISMAY There is a great deal of ambiguity in theeducation literature as to what constitutesCognitivism, and how it different fromConstructivism What follows is my take on thingsCognitiveProto-Cognitivism CognitivismConstructivismConstructivism 8. Proto-Cognitivism:Gestalt Psychology 9. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt- "essence or shape of an entitys complete form" "Thewhole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining Gestalt theory. 10. Gestalt Psychology Butit is better stated that the qualities of the whole have additional qualities that that parts do not have, e.g. the four lines on the right have the additional quality of squareness that the lines on the left do not. 11. Gestalt Psychology Gestaltistssee objects as perceivedwithin an environment according to all oftheir elements taken together as a globalconstruct. 12. Max Wertheimer Born April 15, 1880 Died Oct 12, 1943 Born in Prague, CzechRepublic Psychologist Father of Gestaltpsychology 13. Inspiration In 1910 he bought a toystroboscope He saw two separate andalternating light patterns He discovered that if thespacing, on-time, and off-time were just right for theselights, his mind wouldperceive the dual lights asone single flashing lightmoving back and forth 14. Phi phenomenon a perceptual illusion inwhich a perception ofmotion is produced bya succession of stillimages. Lead to importantquestions about howperception and thebrain works. 15. Kurt Koffka Born March 18, 1886 Died Nov 22, 1941 Born in Berlin,Germany Psychologist Another of the foundersof Gestalt psychology Learning theorist 16. Theories on learning Koffka believed that most of early learning is whathe referred to as, "sensorimotor learning," which is atype of learning which occurs after a consequence.For example, a child who touches a hot stove willlearn not to touch it again. 17. Theories on learning Koffka also believed that a lot of learning occurs byimitation, though he argued that it is not important tounderstand how imitation works, but rather toacknowledge that it is a natural occurrence. According to Koffka, the highest type of learning isideational learning, which makes use of language. 18. Wolfgang Khler Born in Jan 21, 1887 Died in June 11, 1967 Born in Reval (nowTallinn), Estonia Psychologist andphenomenologist Another of the foundersof Gestalt psychology 19. Problem solving In 1913, Khler went to theisland of Tenerife in theCanary Islands for six years Khler observed the manner inwhich chimpanzees solveproblems, such as that ofretrieving bananas whenpositioned out of reach. Hefound that they stackedwooden crates to use asmakeshift ladders, in order toretrieve the food. If the bananas were placed onthe ground outside of the cage,they used sticks to lengthenthe reach of their arms. 20. Problem solving Khler concluded that the chimpshad not arrived at these methodsthrough trial-and-error (whichAmerican psychologist EdwardThorndike had claimed to be thebasis of all animal learning,through his law of effect), butrather that they had experiencedan insight (also sometimes knownas an aha experience), in which,having realized the answer, theythen proceeded to carry it out in away that was, in Khlers words,unwaveringly purposeful. 21. The bouba/kiki effect 22. The bouba/kiki effect The Bouba/Kiki Effectwas first observed byGerman-AmericanpsychologistWolfgang Khler in1929. 23. The bouba/kiki effect In psychological experiments, first conducted onthe island of Tenerife (in which the primarylanguage is Spanish), Khler showed forms inthe previous slides asked participants whichshape was called "takete" and which was called"baluba" ("maluma" in the 1947 version). Datasuggested a strong preference to pair the jaggedshape with "takete" and the rounded shape with"baluba". 24. The bouba/kiki effect In 2001, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran andEdward Hubbard repeated Khlers experimentusing the words "kiki" and "bouba" and askedAmerican college undergraduates and Tamilspeakers in India Which of these shapes isbouba and which is kiki? In both the English and the Tamil speakers, 95%to 98% selected the curvy shape as "bouba" andthe jagged one as "kiki", suggesting that thehuman brain is somehow able to extract abstractproperties from the shapes and sounds. 25. The bouba/kiki effect Recent work by Daphne Maurer and colleagueshas shown that even children as young as 2.5(too young to read) show this effect. Ramachandran and Hubbard suggest that thekiki/bouba effect has implications for theevolution of language, because it suggests thatthe naming of objects is not completely arbitrary. 26. The bouba/kiki effect The rounded shape may most commonly benamed "bouba" because the mouth makes amore rounded shape to produce that soundwhile a more taut, angular mouth shape isneeded to make the sound "kiki". The sounds of a K are harder and more forcefulthan those of a B, as well. 27. The bouba/kiki effect The presence of these "synesthesia-likemappings" suggest that this effect might be theneurological basis for sound symbolism, inwhich sounds are non-arbitrarily mapped toobjects and events in the world. 28. The bouba/kiki effect Individuals with autism do not show as strong apreference. Where average people agree withthe typical result 90% of the time, individualswith autism only agree 60% of the time(Ramachandran, V.S., Oberman, L.M. Evidencefor Deficits in Mirror Neuron Function,Multisensory Integration, and Sound-formSymbolism in Autism Spectrum Disorders) 29. Main principlesof Gestalt Psychology 30. Gestalt Principles Emergence Reification Multistability Invariance Prgnanz 31. Principle of Emergence Objectsin an images are not recognised by their component parts, but are rather perceived as a whole, all at once. 32. Principle of Emergence 33. Principle of Emergence 34. Principle of Emergence Thedog is not recognized by first identifyingits parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and theninferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, allat once. 35. Principle of Reification theexperienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. 36. Principle of Reification 37. Principle of Multistability thetendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. 38. Principle of Multistability 39. Principle of Multistability 40. Principle of Multistability 41. Principle of Multistability 42. Principle of Multistability 43. Principle of Invariance theproperty of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. 44. Principle of Invariance 45. Principle of Prgnanz wetend to order our experience in a mannerthat is regular, orderly, symmetric, andsimple. This results in other more basic laws Law of Closure Law of Similarity Law of Proximity Law of Continuity Law of Common Fate 46. Law of Closure The mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity). 47. Law of Similarity The mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. This similarity might depend on relationships of form, colour, size, or brightness. 48. Law of Proximity Spatial or temporal proximity of elements may induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality. 49. Law of Symmetry Symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance. 50. Law of Continuity The mind continues visual, auditory, and kinetic patterns. 51. Law of Common Fate Elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit. 52. An Investigation of the spatial perception oftime multiplexing during the simulation ofmotion of objects The project investigated thephysiology and psychology ofvisual perception, and attemptedto explain the illusion in thoseterms. The psychology investigationcentred on Gestalt Psychologyand how the principles in Gestaltpsychology co-operate to causethe formation of illusorycontours. I designed an LED Array systemwhose display characteristicscould be varied in software toassist in supporting theproposed theory. In addition the research appearsto have found a way ofmeasuring the persistence ofvision of illusory contours forvery short periods of time. 53. Cognitivism:Instructional Design 54. Kurt Lewin Born Sept 9, 1890 Died Feb 12, 1947 Born in Mogilno,Poland Psychologist "founder of socialpsychology Worked closely with theGestalt psychologists 55. Force field Analysis provides a framework forlooking at the factors(forces) that influence asituation, originally socialsituations. Lewin believed the "field" tobe a Gestalt psychologicalenvironment existing in anindividuals (or in thecollective group) mind at acertain point in time that canbe mathematicallydescribed in a topologicalconstellation of constructs. 56. Action Research first coined the term actionresearch in about 1944. Inhis 1946 paper ActionResearch and MinorityProblems he describedaction research as acomparative research onthe conditions and effects ofvarious forms of socialaction and research leadingto social action that uses aspiral of steps, each ofwhich is composed of acircle of planning, action,and fact-finding about theresult of the action. 57. Instructional Design Active Learning Instruction must be planned with a clear vision of what the students will dowith the content presented. It is critical that students interact with theinstructional content and that activities be developed to promote and supportopen-ended, self-directed learning. Content should never be delivered formemorization, but instead for use as a tool in planned and sequencedactivities. A Cohesive Approach Lewin wrote that a piecemeal approach to guiding learners to accept newideas, attitudes, and behaviors is ineffective. Instead, a cohesive approachmust be utilized to support changes in cognition, affect, and behavior. Impact of the Social Environment Lewin theorized that before changes in ideas, attitudes, and behavior willoccur, modifications in a learners perception of self and his/her socialenvironment are essential. He also argued that it is easier to create changein a social context than individually. 58. More work onInstructional Design 59. Instructional Design Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal ofinstruction and other learning experiences. The process consists of determining the currentstate and needs of the learner, defining the end goalof instruction, and creating some "intervention" toassist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directlyobservable and scientifically measured orcompletely hidden and assumed. 60. Robert Mills Gagn Born in Aug 21, 1916 Died in April 28, 2002 Born in in North Andover,Massachusetts educational psychologist best known for hisConditions of Learning involved in applyinginstructional theory to thedesign of computer basedlearning. 61. The Gagn Assumption different types of learning exist, and thatdifferent instructional conditions are mostlikely to bring about these different types oflearning. 62. Five Categories of Learning verbal information intellectual skills cognitive strategies motor skills attitudes 63. Eight Types of Learning1. Signal Learning - The individual learns to make a general, diffuse response to a signal. Such was the classical conditioned response of Pavlov.2. Stimulus-Response Learning - The learner acquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus.3. Chaining - A chain of two or more stimulus-response connections is acquired.4. Verbal Association - The learning of chains that are verbal.5. Discrimination Learning - The individual learns to make different identifying responses to many different stimuli that may resemble each other in physical appearance.6. Concept Learning - The learner acquires a capability of making a common response to a class of stimuli.7. Rule Learning - A rule is a chain of two or more concepts.8. Problem Solving - A kind of learning that requires the internal events usually called thinking. 64. Gagns Nine Events ofInstruction 65. Nine Events of Instruction1. Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.2. Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the basis for assessment.3. Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process.4. Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner.5. Provide learning guidance - use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.6. Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.7. Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.8. Assess performance - take a final assessment.9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will have a "performance" focus. 66. GeorgeArmitageMiller Born Feb 3, 1920 Age 90 Born in Charleston,West Virginia Psychologist andCognitive Scientist founder of WordNet Millers Magic Number 67. Information Processing Theory TOTE: Test-Operate-Test-Exitan iterative problem solvingstrategy based on feedbackloopsTest Exit test where the system iscurrently, then perform someoperation that makes achange, then retest again, and to repeat this until the Operateanswer is satisfactory, atwhich point the process iscomplete and ends (orexits). 68. Information Processing Theory The following is an exampleof a simple TOTE: Whendriving a car and looking forthe appropriate turn off.ProblemTest Exit Test - is this the turnoff? - No Operate - keep driving Test - is this the turnoff? - No Operate - keep drivingOperate Test - is this the turnoff? - Yes Exit 69. Millers Magic Number 72 70. Millers Magic Number "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two:Some Limits on Our Capacity for ProcessingInformation" (Miller 1956) is one of the most highlycited papers in psychology He looked at Memory span - which is a long list ofitems (e.g., digits, letters, words) that a person canrepeat back immediately after presentation incorrect order. Miller observed that memory span of young adults isapproximately 7 chunks. He noticed that memoryspan is approximately the same for stimuli withvastly different amount of information . 71. Charles M. Reigeluth Elaboration Theory instruction is made out oflayers and that each layer ofinstruction elaborates on thepreviously presented ideas. Byelaborating on the previousideal, it reiterates, therebyimproving retention Present overview of simplestand most fundamental ideas Add complexity to one aspect Review the overview andshow relationships to thedetails Provide additional elaborationof details Provide additional summaryand synthesis 72. Reigeluths Elaboration Theory 73. Charles M. ReigeluthThe Eight Steps in Elaboration Theory1. Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course2. Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and then add elaborations in subsequent lessons.3. Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex, abstract to concrete.4. Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice format5. Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision table, or a cause-effect model .6. Analogies: relate the content to learners prior knowledge, use multiple analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.7. Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics, etc. - can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.8. Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over both content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of strategy components facilitates effective learner control of those components. 74. Constructivism