A
CONCISE SYNTAX OF
Classical Greek
Evert van Emde Boas
TABLE1. AGREEMENT1.1. Subject - Finite Verb 1.2. Noun -
Adjective/Pronoun 1.3. Antecedent - Relative Pronoun 1.4.
Apposition
OF
CONTENTS7.6.1. Present 7.6.2. Aorist, imperfect, historic
present 7.6.3. Aorist and imperfect: overview 7.6.3. Future 7.6.4.
Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect 40 40 42 43 43
44 5 5 6
7.7. Other Moods in Main Clauses7.7.1. Modal indicative 7.7.2.
Optative 7.7.3. Subjunctive 7.7.4. Imperative 7.7.5. Overview of
the uses of moods in main clauses
4343 44 45 46 46
2. THE ARTICLE2.1. Meaning of the Definite Article 2.2. Position
of the Article and Adjectival Phrases 2.3. Pronominal Uses of the
Article
77 9 11
3. PRONOUNS3.1. The Three Uses of the Intensive Pronoun 3.2.
Demonstrative Pronouns 3.3. Personal Pronouns 3.4. Possessive
Pronouns 3.5. Reflexive Pronouns 3.6. The Reciprocal Pronoun 3.7.
and 3.8. The Indefinite Pronoun
1212 13 14 15 16 16 16 17
8. THE VERB: VOICE8.1. The Greek Voice System 8.2. Passive 8.3.
Middle 8.4. Deponent Verbs
4747 47 48 49
9. THE INFINITIVE9.1. Dynamic and Declarative Infinitives 9.2.
The Declarative Infinitive 9.3. The Dynamic Infinitive 9.4. Tense
and Aspect of Declarative and Dynamic Infinitives 9.5. Verbs Taking
Both Constructions 9.6. The Infinitive with Verbs of Preventing and
Denying 9.7. The Articular Infinitive 9.8. Other Uses of the
Infinitive
5050 50 51 52 53 54 55 55
4. CASES4.1. Meanings and Labels 4.2. The Genitive4.2.1. As
required supplement with verbs/adjectives 4.2.2. With nouns
(attributively) 4.2.3. With sentences (adverbially)
1818 1818 19 20
4.3. The Dative4.3.1. As required supplement with
verbs/adjectives 4.3.2. With nouns (attributively) 4.3.3. With
sentences (adverbially)
2121 21 22
10. THE PARTICIPLE10.1. Tense and Aspect of Participles 10.2.
The Supplementary Participle10.2.1. Verbs taking either participle
or infinitive
5656 5658
4.4. The Accusative4.4.1. As required supplement with verbs
4.4.2. Internal object 4.4.3. With sentences (adverbially) 4.4.4.
Apposition to a sentence
2323 24 24 24
10.3. The Attributive Participle 10.4. The Circumstantial
Participle 10.5. Periphrastic Uses of the Participle
58 59 61
11. IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTIONS11.1. Introduction, Weather Terms
11.3. Other Impersonal Verbs and Their Constructions 11.4.
Accusative Absolute 11.5. Verbal Adjectives
6262 62 63 63
5. TIME AND SPACE5.1. Temporal Modifiers 5.2. Spatial
Modifiers
2525 26
6. PREPOSITIONS6.1 Frequent Uses of the Prepositions 6.2. Some
Other Words Used as Prepositions
2828 37
12. INDIRECT DISCOURSE12.1. Indirect Speech and Thought 12.2.
With a Declarative Infinitive 12.3. With a /-Clause 12.4.
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
6464 65 65 67
7. THE VERB: TENSE & ASPECT, MOOD7.1. Introduction to Tense
and Aspect 7.2. The Greek Tense System 7.3. The Greek Aspect System
7.4. Synthesis: the 7 Indicatives 7.5. Narrative and Non-Narrative
Texts 7.6. The Indicative in Main Clauses
3838 38 38 39 39 40
13. QUESTIONS13.1. Introduction 13.2. Direct Yes/No-Questions
and Alternative Questions 13.3. Direct Specifying Questions 13.4.
The Use of Moods in Direct Questions
6868 68 69 69
2
Table of Contents
13.5. Indirect Questions 13.6. The Use of Moods in Indirect
Questions 13.7. Is That a Question?
70 71 71
21. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES21.1. Introduction 21.2. Neutral
Conditions 21.3. Prospective Conditions 21.4. Potential Conditions
21.5. Counterfactual Conditions 21.6. Habitual Conditions 21.7.
Some Additional Comments 21.8. Overview of Conditionals
8787 87 88 89 89 90 90 92
14. COMMANDS & EXHORTATIONS, WISHES14.1. Directives
(Commands and Exhortations) 14.2. Wishes
7272 73
15. INTRODUCTION TO SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 7515.1. Predicates,
Subordination and Clauses 15.2. Types of Subordinate Clause 15.3.
75 76 76
22. RELATIVE CLAUSES22.1. Introduction 22.2. Antecedent,
Agreement, Attraction and Connection 22.3. Moods and Tenses in
Relative Clauses
9393 94 95
16. VERBS OF FEARING AND EFFORT16.1. Verbs of Fearing and
Apprehension 16.2. Verbs of Effort, Precaution and Contriving 16.3.
Some Additional Comments
7777 78 78
23. OVERVIEW OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 24. PARTICLES24.1.
Introduction 24.2. Particles that Play a Role in Structuring a Text
24.3. Particles of Scope 24.4. Interactional Particles
97 9999 99 103 104
17. TEMPORAL CLAUSES17.1. Introduction 17.2. Temporal Clauses
Referring to the Present or Past 17.3. Temporal Clauses Referring
to the Future 17.4. Temporal Clauses Referring to a Habitual
Occurrence 17.5. 17.6.
7979 80 80 81 81 82
25. NEGATIVES25.1. Introduction 25.2. Multiple Negatives 25.3.
In Main Clauses 25.4. In Questions 25.5. With Infinitives 25.6.
With Participles 25.7. In Subordinate Clauses
107107 107 108 108 108 109 109
18. CAUSAL CLAUSES18.1. Introduction 18.2. The Causal Use of
Temporal Clauses 18.3. and
8383 83 83
19. PURPOSE CLAUSES19.1. Introduction 19.2. Construction of
Purpose Clauses
8484 84
26. 26.1. As a Conjunction 26.2. As an Adverb 26.3. As a
Preposition
110110 110 111
20. RESULT CLAUSES20.1. Introduction 20.2. Construction of
Result Clauses20.2.1. With the moods of independent sentences
20.2.2. With the infinitive
8585 8585 86
3
1. AGREEMENT1.1. SUBJECT - FINITE VERBBasic rule: a finite verb
agrees in person and number with its subject: the ship is setting
out (third person singular) the ships are setting out (third person
plural) we are setting out (first person plural)
!
Note:If the role of the finite verb is preformed by a
periphrastic construction with a participle, tbat participle agrees
in case (nominative), number and gender with the subject (see 1.2
below): ... (Xenophon, Hellenica 1.1.11) But when he learned that
the Peloponnesian ships were on their way (had set out) from
Abydus, ...
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: The verb may
agree with the meaning of the subject rather than its grammatical
form (the so-called construction or ad sensum (according to
sense)); for example, when the subject is singular but refers to a
collective, the verb may be plural in form: . (Xenophon, Hellenica
3.3.4) The city, when it had heard such arguments, elected
Agesilaus king. . (Thucydides 4.32.2) At daybreak the rest of the
army disembarked as well.
-
When the subject is neuter plural, the verb is usually singular
(but the plural form of the verb may be used to emphasise the fact
that the subject consists of various individual members): ... , .
(Antisthenes, fr. 14.4) No coward would use weapons typical of a
coward, knowing that the weapons expose his cowardice. ... .
(Xenophon, Anabasis 4.2.20) When they began to descend towards the
others, where they were halted under arms (lit.: where their
weapons lay).
-
When the subject is dual, the verb may be either dual or plural:
. (Plato, Phaedrus 256c) [The two of them] made a choice and
executed it.
-
When there are multiple subjects, the verb will either be plural
(when all subjects are viewed as equally important) or singular
(agreeing with the most important subject). The same holds in cases
where one of the subjects is a first or second person (the person
of the verb changes accordingly): ... (Thucydides 4.46.1) After
their arrival in Corcyra, Eurymedon and Sophocles made an attack on
... ... (Thucydides 4.38.2) Styphon said, as did his company, that
... ... (Plato, Laws 661b) You and your friends are not the first
to have ... ... (Thucydides 4.38.2) I am present, and so are this
man Phryniscus and Polycrates ...
4
1. Agreement
1.2. NOUN - ADJECTIVE/PRONOUNBasic rule: an adjective
(participle, pronoun) agrees in case, number and gender with the
noun it refers to. This is true regardless of the position of the
adjective (attributive or predicative, see 2.2): () the wise man
(nominative singular masculine) to the wise men (dative plural
masculine) the wise woman (nominative singular feminine) The woman
is wise. (nominative singular feminine, predicative position) of
those wise women (genitive plural feminine, pronoun in predicative
position)
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: An adjective in
predicative position which agrees with a masculine or feminine
abstract noun may stand in the neuter (especially in proverbs,
general truths, etc.): , . (Plato, Republic 364a) Temperance and
justness are a beautiful thing, yet difficult and laborious.
-
A demonstrative pronoun followed by a predicate noun generally
agrees with that noun, but may also stand in the neuter (see also
3.2): . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.7.24) Learn from what happened
before, for that is the best source of teaching. . (Plato, Republic
432b) This is what we call justice.
!
Note:A demonstrative pronoun or form of referring back to an
antecedent (anaphoric use, see 3.1-2) is very frequently formed
according to the meaning rather than the grammatical form of that
antecedent ( , see 1.1 above): ... (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.14)
After calling an assembly of his men, he recommended to them
that...
1.3. ANTECEDENT - RELATIVE PRONOUNBasic rule: a relative pronoun
agrees in number and gender with its antecedent, but its case is
determined by its syntactical function in the relative clause (see
22.2): , the ship which is putting out to sea
singular and feminine as the antecedent, nominative according to
the function in the relative clause (subject).the ships are putting
out to sea (third person plural). singular and feminine as the
antecedent, accusative according to the function in the relative
clause (object). ,
There are various exceptions to the basic rule: The construction
(see 1.1 above) is very frequent with relative pronouns:... , .
(Thucydides 6.80.1) ... as help will come from the Peloponnesians
(lit.: from the Peloponnese), who are stronger than these men.
-
For relative attraction, see 22.2.
5
1. Agreement
1.4. APPOSITIONApposition is the placement of two words or word
groups (usually nouns) parallel to each other, one (the appositive)
defining or modifying the other. The appositive agrees in case with
the word it belongs to, but has its own number and gender:,
(Aeschines 3.133) Thebes, our neighbouring city , ... ...
(Xenophon, Cyropaedia 5.2.7) He brought out his daughter, an
impressive creature in beauty and stature, and spoke as follows:
...
A few special cases should be noted: An appositive to a
possessive pronoun (or an adjective equivalent to a possessive)
stands in the genitive: (Plato, Republic 364a) the life of me,
miserable me , (Plato, Apology 29d) being a citizen of Athens
(lit.: an Athenian), the greatest city
-
An appositive to a whole clause or sentence usually stands in
the accusative (occasionally the nominative):... ... , . (Plato,
Gorgias 507e) ... while attempting to satisfy his desires an
unceasing evil. ..., | . (Euripides, Heraclidae 71-2) We are
victims of violence a disgrace to the city and insult to the
gods.
6
2. THE ARTICLE2.1. MEANING OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLEEnglish has an
indefinite and a definite article:The student went to university
and attended a Greek syntax class.
Greek only has a definite article (, , ). The Greek equivalent
of an indefinite article is the lack of an article. The article is
definite because it refers to something that is defined, or
identifiable. In other words, the article expresses that it is
clear whom/what is meant, and that it can be distinguished from
other people/things: the sun night (generally) / the night (which
was mentioned previously or is well known) man (as a species) / the
man (who was mentioned previously or is well known) lions (as a
species) / the lions (which were mentioned previously, etc.)
When something is mentioned for the first time, it will normally
be without the article. When it has been mentioned before or is
well known, it is identifiable and therefore gets the article: .
... ... (Aesopus 12.1) A fox and a leopard were engaged in a beauty
contest. While the leopard was making his case with the speckled
fur on his body, the fox interrupted and said: ... , . (Herodotus
7.225.2) The hill is at the mouth (of the pass), where the (famous)
stone lion dedicated to Leonidas now stands.
A species or class in its entirety is also identifiable and gets
the article. This use is called generic: an informant is a vile
thing good men are held in esteem
Abstract nouns (identifiable as a discrete concept) usually take
the article: ... . (Plato, Phaedo 69c) Restraint and justice and
wisdom itself may well be some form of purification. (For ... , see
7.7.3.) . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.1.5) Valour rather than flight
saves lives.
The principle article = identifiable is also valid for words
that are in apposition. If an appositive has an article, it means
that the word(s) to which it is appended is/are identifiable: '
(...) . (Herodotus 5.36.2) But Hecataeus the historian advised them
not to start a war against the king of Persia. . (Thucydides 1.1.1)
Thucydides, an Athenian, has recorded the war between the
Peloponnesians and the Athenians.
In the first example, the addition of distinguishes this
Hecataeus from others with the same name. In the second example,
Thucydides introduces himself for the first time to his readers;
would have meant Thucydides the Athenian (already known as
such).
7
2. The Article
The article can stand where English would use a possessive
pronoun, when there is no doubt as to the possessor: . (Demosthenes
40.61) For about those things you will now cast your vote. .
(Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.3) Cyrus stepped off his chariot and put on
his breastplate.
The article will make any word or words to which it is prefixed
into a noun: Adjectives: the wise man justice
-
Participles (in any case, number, tense, voice), often with the
generic article whoever (see 10.3): any chance comer the dead
( ...), . (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 4.2.40) ..., so that we have
people to provide (lit.: who will make provisions) for us as
well.
-
Infinitives (translate with an English gerund): (the) being led
by pleasures . We have conquered through speaking.
-
Adverbs: the people inside the people of long ago, our
forebears
-
Prepositional phrases: those in power (the government) those in
the prime of their youth
-
Whole clauses: . (Menander, Sententiae 1.730) The saying know
yourself is useful on every occasion.
!
Note:In quite a few cases Greek uses the article where English
would not (e.g. the generic article, abstract nouns, etc.). In
Greek prose, the lack of an article is usually significant and
should not be overlooked when translating into English.
!
Note:Proper names (of people and places) will normally not take
an article the first time they are mentioned (unless the person or
place is considered extremely well-known). Even after the first
mention, the article is often omitted.
!
Note: = many; = the majority, the mass.
8
2. The Article
2.2. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE AND ADJECTIVAL PHRASESWhen a noun
with the article is combined with an adjectival phrase, the words
can be placed in two ways: Attributive position of the adjective
(the adjectival phrase is directly preceded by the article) in this
case, the adjective is presented as an attribute or characteristic
belonging very closely to the noun: (rare) the just man
-
Predicative position of the adjective (the adjectival phrase
stands outside the article-noun combination) in this case, the
adjective is used to say something about the noun in relation to
the rest of the sentence (in English, understand a form of to be or
translate as an adverb): the man is just, or: the man, being just,
...
!
Note:The predicative position is used when an adjectival phrase
or noun is used as predicate after a form of to be, to become, to
be called, to be judged, etc.: hence the translation the man is
just above ( is elided); compare = the man is called just (not *
).
!
Note:In attributive position, the adjective will as a rule
preceed the noun only when it expresses the most important aspect
of the combined noun-adjective phrase. Thus, when you are saying
something about a man who happens to be just, is the normal order;
when the justness of the man is the entire reason for his being
mentioned (e.g. when a just man is being contrasted with an unjust
one), we find . The order is very rare, and occurs when the
adjective provides additional information needed to identify the
man.
Adjectives in predicative position must be translated
differently from those in attributive position: . They will leave
behind the immortal memory of themselves. . (Isocrates 9.3) They
will leave behind the memory of themselves to be immortal.
This is especially important with participles (see 10.2-3): . I
see the sick man. . I see that the man is sick.
Note also the different interpretation of prepositional phrases:
. The women in the city are running. . The women are running in the
city.
9
2. The Article
Some words always take the predicative position: this this
(here) that (there) each each of two both
The distinction between attributive and predicative position is
not made when the adjectival phrase is another noun in the
genitive: (rare) the people of Athens
However, partitive genitives (see 4.2.2) are always in
predicative position, and genitives of personal pronouns (, , ,
etc.) used as a possessive (see 3.3) always follow their noun in
predicative position: the rich among the citizens the majority of
them his book
When used as a possessive, the genitives of demonstrative
pronouns (, , , etc., see 3.2), of the reflexive pronoun (, etc.,
see 3.5), and of the reciprocal pronoun (, see 3.6) always stand in
attributive position: her book his own book their mutual book
The word (and , ) in the singular means (as a) whole when it
stands with the article (usually in predicative position). Without
the article, it usually means each/every: / each/every city
(sometimes: an entire city) the whole city (which was mentioned
before, is well known, etc.)
In the plural, it means each/every/all, with emphasis on the
collective nature of the group if the form of is in attributive
position: / each/every city, all cities all the cities (which were
mentioned before, are well known, etc.) the whole group of cities,
the cities collectively
Adjectives that determine a location, such as (high); (middle);
(utmost, extreme), have different meanings when in attributive or
predicative position: in the middle marketplace (of three or more)
in the middle of the marketplace to the high mountain to the top of
the mountain
10
2. The Article
2.3. PRONOMINAL USES OF THE ARTICLEIn Classical Greek, the
article normally does not have the force of a pronoun (as it does
in Homer), with two exceptions: The article, without a noun, is
combined with the particles and to contrast individuals, groups,
etc.: ... ... ... the one ... the other ... some ... others ... on
the one hand ... on the other hand ...
-
(but he, and he) at the start of a sentence (topic switch): the
article with is here used to refer back to someone or something
mentioned in the previous sentence who was not the topic (the
person or thing a clause is about usually the subject) of that
sentence. That person or thing becomes the topic of the new
sentence: ... . . (Lysias 3.12) Simon here was dragging the boy
along. He, however, flung off his cloak and ran away. ... ...
(Lysias 1.12) I was telling my wife to go away, but she, at first,
did not want to.
The first sentences are about Simon and the I, respectively, but
mention other people involved (the boy, the wife); in the second
sentences, these others are the new topics and are referred to by
article + .
!
Note: (acc. ) means the same as (topic shift); (acc. ) = such
and such; = previously.
11
3. PRONOUNS3.1. THE THREE USES OF THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN In
predicative position or by itself, means self: , . (Antiphon 4.1.7)
You have heard the testimony of the witnesses, who were present
with the drunkard himself. . (Thucydides 1.114) They themselves
seized the land.
In attributive position (always with the article), means the
same: ; (Euripides, Heracles 816) Have we become victims of the
same attack of fear? These same things
Forms of are used to represent the oblique cases of the personal
pronoun in the third person (him, her, it). The form of always
refers back to someone or something introduced before (this is
called anaphoric): . (Plato, Apology 21b) For I suppose that he is
not lying, at any rate, since that is not allowed to him. . I have
not forgotten him.
Some idiomatic translations of , self: By itself, in itself,
unaided, alone, bare: the naked truth
Just, merely: merely these things
With ... and all (with the dative of accompaniment, see 4.3.3):
. (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 3.3.40) He told them to come to their posts
with crowns and all
-
With ... others (with ordinals): ... . (Polybius 8.19.8) After
that, he led onwards with four others (lit.: himself the
fifth).
!
Note:Be mindful of the close look-alikes / and / !
12
3. Pronouns
3.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (, , )The three demonstrative
pronouns can either stand by themselves or as an adjectival pronoun
with nouns. In the latter case, they all normally take the article,
and predicative position (see 2.2): / / / this man (here) this man
that man (there)
Their meanings differ as follows: refers to something
immediately near/present to the speaker (physically or mentally).
It is used in Tragedy to announce characters coming onstage. It can
even (in poetry) refer to the speaker himself. You can almost
always imagine the speaker/writer pointing at something or someone:
; (Plato, Apology 26d7) Do you so despise these gentlemen and think
that they are so unversed in letters? . (Sophocles, Antigone 155)
But here comes the king. ... (Sophocles, Trachiniae 305) While I
still live.
-
refers to something near to the speaker (physically or
mentally). One of its most frequent uses is to refer to something
just mentioned (anaphoric use). It is used sometimes to refer to
celebrated, famous people/things, and (very infrequently) to
address someone (you there): . (Plato, Apology 18c4) These accusers
(just mentioned) are many and have been making their accusations
already for a long time. (Plato, Hippias Major 282) The famous
Gorgias , . (Aristophanes, Frogs 198) You there, what are you
doing?
-
refers to something relatively remote from the speaker
(physically or mentally):[ ] . (Plato, Apology 22d8) This folly
(just mentioned) of theirs also seemed to me to obscure that
wisdom.
As a general rule of thumb, refers to what precedes (anaphoric),
and refers to what follows (cataphoric): ... ... having said these
things ... ... he said the following: ...
There are, however, many exceptions to this rule ( may refer
forward, backward). When referring back to two
persons/groups/things just mentioned, the former... the latter...
in Greek is represented by ... / (but also often simply by ... ,
see 2.3): . (Plato, Apology 18e3) And you have heard the former
make their accusations earlier and with much more vehemence than
these men here who accused me later. (Socrates has just
distinguished two groups among his accusers.)
13
3. Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun will either agree with a noun predicated
of it, or stand in the neuter (see 1.2): ... (Demosthenes 9.9) But
if anyone understands that to be peace, ... ; (Aristophanes, Frogs
21) Is that not insolence?
3.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)Personal pronouns are
either contrastive (emphatic) or non-contrastive:Contrastive:
Non-contrastive: , , , ; , , , , , ; , , (the nominative does not
exist)
The contrastive pronouns are used almost exclusively in
contrastive emphasis (when a specific distinction is made between
two people/groups).
!
Note:Non-contrastive personal pronouns are enclitics: they have
no accent of their own (but can get one from a following enclitic
or the preceding word), and cannot stand first in a clause, or in
the word-group they belong to.
In the nominative, the personal pronoun is used only in
contrastive emphasis. Normally the person-ending of the verb is
sufficient (the personal pronoun is omitted): . You have educated
the children. , . (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.3.6) Since you do not wish
to be persuaded, I will follow you.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the
non-contrastive pronouns are used unless there is contrastive
emphasis. . (Antiphon 3.10) As such, the things of which I stand
accused are all false. ; (Demosthenes 18.196) Why do you accuse me
of these things rather than I you?
There is no personal pronoun for the third person. In the
nominative, when a form is required for contrastive emphasis, a
demonstrative pronoun or a nominative of (he himself) is used:[] ,
(Isaeus 6.59) He says that these men are rich, but he himself is
poor.
In the oblique cases (accusative, genitive, dative), the role of
non-contrastive third-person pronouns is performed by forms of (see
3.1).
!
Note:In Homer, there are still non-contrastive third-person
pronoun forms in the oblique cases: /, , ; , , , etc. In Herodotus:
, , /; , , . In Tragedy, and are frequently found for the
accusative third person.
14
3. Pronouns
3.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (, , X; , , X)The possessive pronouns
mean exactly the same thing as the genitives of personal pronouns.
So:Possessive = = = = Personal
Of these, the possessives usually take attributive position, the
genitives of the personal pronoun always take the predicative
position following the noun (see 2.2): / my friend
There is no possessive pronoun for the third person. Instead, we
find the genitive of (in predicative position) or the genitive of
demonstratives (in attributive position) (see 2.2): ... .
(Isocrates 16.31) For her father Hipponicus set his heart upon
making my father related to him by marriage. her money
!
Note:In Homer, there is still a possessive pronoun for the third
person: /, /, /.
If the subject and the possessor are the same, the genitive of
the reflexive pronoun (see 3.5) is often preferred (in attributive
position, see 2.2): . (Thucydides 2.101) He gives his own sister in
marriage to Seuthes.
Remember that when the possessor is beyond doubt, the article
can suffice to express a possessive relationship (see 2.1). . He
gives his sister in marriage to him.
Possessive pronouns may have the force of a subjective or
objective genitive (see 4.2.2): out of my friendship (for someone
else) / out of friendship for me
15
3. Pronouns
3.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (, , /; , , /)The reflexive pronoun
means himself, herself, etc.: the pronoun refers back to the
subject of the main clause of the sentence. When the pronoun is
itself in the main clause, it is called a direct reflexive, when it
is in a subordinate clause (or accusative and infinitive
construction, etc.), an indirect reflexive:Direct: .
(Thales?/Chilon?/Solon?) Know thyself. Indirect: . (Xenophon,
Anabasis 2.5.29) Clearchus wanted the entire army to be favourable
to himself.
For indirect reflexives in the dative, (singular) and (plural)
are occasionally found instead of the reflexive pronoun: .
(Antiphon 1.16) He asked her if she would be willing to do him a
service.
!
Note:The reflexive pronoun does not have a nominative. Reflexive
actions can also be expressed in Greek by the middle voice, but
only with certain verbs pertaining to the body: = I wash myself, =
I shave (myself). For sentences like he killed himself the
reflexive pronoun is required: (see 4.7).
3.6. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN ()The reciprocal pronoun means each
other: . (Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes 812-3) The earth is
drenched with the blood of our two kings, who stem from the same
stock, due to their mutual bloodshed. . (Homer, Odyssey 9.55) They
hit each other with bronze spears.
!
Note:The reciprocal pronoun does not have a nominative and is
always plural. Reciprocal actions can also be expressed in Greek by
the middle voice ( = They conversed with each other), by the
reflexive pronoun ( = they used to hit themselves/each other), and
by repetition of the noun ( = men slew each other (Homer,
Iliad)).
3.7. AND Both , other (of several) and , other (of two) can be
used by themselves or as adjectival pronouns: / / another man the
other man (of two)
16
3. Pronouns
is sometimes used loosely where one would expect (and as such it
can appear without the article which it otherwise always has): this
conveys a sense of difference: another (different) dignitary
(with the article) means the rest, the other(s): the rest of
Greece the other teachers / the rest of the teachers
Sometimes this is found with a noun that has to be interpreted
as an appositive, in which case gets the meaning: besides,
moreover: ... . (Xenophon, Hellenica 2.4.9) They summoned the
hoplites and the cavalry besides (=and the others, namely the
cavalry).
followed by another form of expressed the same as English
different... different, or a twofold statement one.... one,
another... another: , , . . (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.1.16) As for
them, Clearchus, one says one thing and another says another. You
must tell us what your opinion is. , . (Plato, Symposium 215a)
Still, if in my reminiscences I mention different things from
different sources, you ought not in any way be surprised.
3.8. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN ()The indefinite pronoun (some,
a(n)) refers to someone/something that is not identifiable as a
specific individual, in other words, when the word it modifies
could refer to any number of people/things. can be used by itself
or as an adjectival pronoun with nouns: someone says some man
says
The indefinite pronoun can convey a collective sense, where
someone is short for every someone (cf. German man, French on). The
combinations and are also found with this meaning: but people
detest that man but people (
