23B Restoration Ecology 2009

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    Restoration Ecology and the

    Conservation of Biodiversity

    Basic principles of ecologyhave practical use for solutions

    to human problems

    NRES 420 Restoration Ecology

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    Objectives Human transformation of landscape

    created need Illinois a state in great need Restoration ecology & conservation

    biology Blending science into practice Important ecological principles forrestoration Practice of restoration

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    1999

    Executive Order 13112(invasive species)

    1836Steel plow invented

    1800 1840 1880 200019601920

    1862Homestead Act

    1870s Advent of clay drainage tile systemsDecreased rail transportation costs

    Legislation to create drainage districts

    1869 Transcontinentalrailroad

    1893

    First gasoline automobile

    1903First flight

    1923First commercial hybrid

    maize

    1956Interstate Highway

    System

    1970sEnvironmental protection legislation

    1850Swamp & Overflowed Lands Act

    Landscape Transformation

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    1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

    Year

    0

    4.8

    6.4

    8.0

    1.6

    3.2

    Hectares (millions) in Illinois

    Pasture

    Forests

    Wet Prairie / MarshDry Prairie

    1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

    EarlySettlement

    Start ofAgriculture

    PrairieDrainage

    DiversifiedFarming Monoculture

    Otter

    Bobcat

    Beaver

    Deer

    Gray Wolf

    Fisher

    Mountain Lion

    Black Bear

    Bison

    Elk

    Coyote

    CHANGES INMAJORLANDSCAPEELEMENTS INILLINOIS SINCE

    1800 ANDIMPACTS ONSELECTEDMAMMALS

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    Fragmentation

    0-0.5 0.5-2 8-204-82-4 20-40 >40

    Prairie Size (ha)

    N u m

    b e r o

    f S i t e s

    0

    40

    80

    120

    NUMBER OF HIGH QUALITY PRAIRIES REMAINING INILLINOIS CLASSIFIED BY SIZE CATEGORY

    Number of Parcels

    >240

    40-240

    20-40

    0.4-4

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    Invasive Species

    Non-Natives in the Illinois Flora*

    *2004: 961 non-native of 3,074 taxa97 of 173 families (56%) lack non-

    native taxa

    1846 20041950 1986

    20

    10

    0

    30

    % o

    f I l l i n o i s

    F l o r a

    Spread of Alliaria petiolata

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    Illinois in Need Clearly a need

    Remaining habitat:

    0.01% prairie 9.9% wetland 31.4% forest

    U.S. Rank: Indiana 48 Illinois 49 Iowa 50

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    Restoration Ecology

    Using research to better understand ecological processes

    within highly disturbedecosystems in order to enhancetheir complexity and long-term

    persistence

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    LANDSCAPEECOLOGY

    ECOSYSTEMECOLOGY

    POPULATIONECOLOGY

    COMMUNITYECOLOGY

    RESTORATION ECOLOGY

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    van Diggelen, Grootjans & Harris (2001)

    Improving the Ecology of a DisturbedArea by:

    increase diversity in highly disturbed system reintroduce ecosystem function reestablish characteristic species and

    community structure/function

    may have to start restoration from scratch

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    Ecosystem What are the goals offunction restoration?

    A. D. Bradshaw, Reclamation of Land and Ecology of Ecosystems

    Ecosystemstructure

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    ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

    LANDSCAPEECOLOGY

    ECOSYSTEMECOLOGY

    POPULATIONECOLOGY

    COMMUNITYECOLOGY

    POLICY

    SOCIETY ECONOMICS

    POLITICS

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    Ecology Theory Relevant to Restoration Population Ecology

    Vulnerability of small populations Genetic depression, swamping Metapopulation theory + MVP size

    Community Ecology Species-area relationships

    Island biogeography theory Problems with fragmented habitats

    Intermediate disturbance hypothesis Succession & community assembly Diversity-stability theory; community structure Landscape Ecology Ecosystem Ecology

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    What aspects of Population Ecologyare relevant to Restoration Ecology?

    Species survival depends on maintaining minimum viable population levels

    (>500). maintaining genetic diversity. using locally adapted genotypes. having a metapopulation structure with strong

    source subpopulations to rescue sink ones.

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    COMMUNITY ECOLOGY:How is the Species-Area curve relevant?

    S = c + z log A log S = log c + z log A

    S = c A z

    Figure 1

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    How is Island Biogeography Theoryrelevant?

    Near

    Far

    Large Small

    Immigration

    Number of Species

    Extinction

    Figure 2

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    (From Forman, 1995)

    Patch relationships:What is take-home message?

    Figure 3

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    Ecological Disturbance: What are itsdimensions? How relate to restoration?

    12

    3

    Figure 4

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    Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis:at which level does disturbance aid

    restoration?

    Disturbance Rate

    Smallspecies

    pool

    Competitiveexclusion

    Figure 5

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    **Entries in italics connote reversible disturbances; others

    represent long-term or permanent conversion of habitat.

    Selected Natural & AnthropogenicDisturbances: reversible vs. permanent

    change? Natural Events** Fire Disease epidemic Flood Herbivory Drought Hurricane, tornado, windstorm

    Avalanche, landslide Volcanic eruption Ice storm

    Anthropogenic Events** Residential development Road, trail, railroad line Telephone line, electrical

    power line Dam, water diversion, canal Commercial development Modern agriculture Mining Logging Grazing

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    Succession an orderly change in relative abundances of

    dominant species in a community following adisturbance until a stable community (climax -like predisturbance) results

    1 succession beginson mineral soils

    2 succession beginson soils with seeds

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    Succession: Species-Species Interactions How do these interactions influence communitydevelopment?

    Facilitation early species make environment lesssuitable for themselves, but more suitablefor later species -- nurse crops

    - Tolerance - early species make environment less suitablefor recruitment of similar early species, but they neither helpnor hinder later species

    - Inhibition - early species make environment inhospitableto later-arriving species

    Early prairie reconstructions overly dominated by warm

    season grasses

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    Community Assembly development of the ecological community

    is determined by random variation inspecies' colonization of a disturbed area &subsequent species interactions

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    Which orientation to follow?Succession vs. Community Assembly

    Succession Deterministic Internal interactions & environment determine

    outcome

    Assembly Stochastic

    Supply of propagules determines outcome Multiple stable assemblies

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    How can succession be managedto aid restoration?

    General causes Contributing processes Modifying factors

    Site availability Disturbance Size, severity, time, dispersion

    Species availability Dispersal Landscape configuration, dispersal agents

    Propagules Land use, time since last disturbance

    Resources Soil, topography, site history

    Species performance Ecophysiology Germination requirements, assimilation rates,growth rates, genetic differentiation

    Life history Allocation, reproductive timing & mode

    Stress Climate, site history, prior occupants

    Competition Competition, herbivory, resource availability

    Allelopathy Soil chemistry, microbes, neighboring species

    Herbivory Climate, predators, plant defenses & vigor,community patchiness

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    Restoration: Managing Succession

    ManagingSuccession

    Designed Disturbance

    Controlled SpeciesPerformance

    ControlledColonization

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    Managing Succession: in Practice Designed Disturbance Controlled Colonization Controlled Species Performance

    Burning Burning Burning

    Bulldozing, Scraping, Topsoil Mixing Broadcast seeding, Drill seeding,Direct planting Cabling

    Cabling Cutting Grazing, Excluding grazers

    Chopping, Clipping Grazing Fertilization, Reducing soil fertility

    Flooding & draining Fertilization, Herbicide spraying Herbicide application

    Herbicide application Irrigation, Water level change Mowing, Selective cutting

    Plowing Topsoiling & live soiling Irrigation, Water level change

    Solarization (thermal shock) Rotovating

    Soil compaction Scraping

    Soil fabrics

    fl

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    How can community structure influencestability of restored community?

    Top-down control of trophic abundances Cascade effects: indirect effects extended

    through multiple levels Can have chain of extinctions if highly

    dependent Keystone organisms must be preserved Non-redundant species, key species

    that maintain stability/diversity

    H Di i C l i S bili

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    How can Diversity Complexity Stabilitybe enhanced?

    An increase in the structural diversity ofvegetation increases species diversity.

    Full restoration of native plant communitiessustains diverse wildlife populations.

    A high diversity of plant species assures ayear-round food supply for the greatest

    diversity of wildlife

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    Landscape Ecology How does the landscape context of the restoration

    influence everything discussed earlier?

    S i l P i i l

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    Spatial Principles Large areas sustain more species than small areas. Many small patches in an area will help sustain regional

    diversity. Patch shape is as important as size. Fragmentation of habitats, communities, and ecosystems

    reduces diversity. Isolated patches sustain fewer species than closely

    associated patches. Species diversity in patches connected by corridors >

    than for disconnected patches. A heterogeneous mosaic of community types sustains

    more species & is more likely to support rare speciesthan a single homogeneous community.

    Ecotones between natural communities support a varietyof species from both communities & species specific tothe ecotone.

    Mi i D i A i R i

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    Largest patchsizePatchlongevity

    DisturbancefrequencyHabitatrequirements

    Minimum Dynamic Area in RestorationDesign

    E E l h i i

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    Ecosystem Ecology: how is itrelevant?

    Interactionsbetween the biotic

    & abioticcomponents of the

    ecosystem