Values• General term referring to those things that people

collectively consider to be good, bad, desirable, justified, unjustified etc.

• Values determine what people do and how others react?• Basic convictions that a mode of conduct is personally or

socially preferable• The thoughts and behavioral patterns that the members

of a society learn through language and other forms of symbolic interaction, their customs and traditions, habits, beliefs and values creating a common viewpoints which bind them together as a social entity.

• Value system is a hierarchy based on the ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity

Features• Reflect standard of morality• Central to the core of person• Permanent (does not change)• Guide actions• Present everywhere• Learnt not taught• Values has attributes

• Content – stresses that a particular code of conduct is necessary

• Intensity – how important that particular code of conduct is

Types of Values• Individual vs group• Inherent vs imbibed• Terminal vs instrumental• General vs business

Classification of Values

• Catering to survival needs• Catering to physiological needs• Catering to psychological needs• Catering to social/esteem needs• Catering to self-actualization

Relevance of Values• Social organization• Human factor• Long term vision• Regulatory framework• Exemplary business/competitive

advantage• Must for power centers

Norms• Expectation for proper behavior(not requirement – differs from law)• Already set criteria for behavior• Ways an individual is expected to

behave/act in a given situation• Collective expectation regarding certain

type of behavior• Cannot be published and cannot be

enforced, may not be obeyed• Not consistent or universal

Beliefs• Standards of thought• A way in which society want others to think• Criteria to thought – a way in which one

expect others to think about given concept• Intention is to encourage the way of

thinking and attitude which eventually result in expected behavior

• Different from norms – not action oriented. Only the way of thinking

Moral standards• Is a set of values, norms and beliefs• Includes the norms and beliefs we have about

the kind of actions, thought process we have are morally right or wrong and the values we have are morally good or bad

• Moral standards– Deals with matters which we believe can seriously

benefit or harm/injure human beings– Not established or changed by decision or behaviors

of authoritative bodies/beings– Based on impartial considerations– Preffered to other values including self interest

Morality• Like ethics – ethics are extension of

morals• Is a standard that an individual or group

has about what is right or wrong• Principles and values that we have

internalizedactions

Moral standards

In line with

Ethical

Not In line with

Un Ethical

Moral standards

Ethical decision Making• To solve ethical dilemma faced in

business decision• Often arises when laws are either unclear

or in variance with cultural values• Positioned between two or more

legal/ethical systems• Different parties involved like

• Clients, customers, community, stockholders, government, superiors, peers, subordinates, enterprises etc.

Conceptual framework for decision classification

CorporateDecision

Ethical

Illegal Legal

Un-Ethical

Ethical Dimensions• Goals

• Goal multiplicity• Constituencies priority, acceptability

• Methods• Essential/incidental/extraneous

• Motives• Hidden or known• Shared or selfish

• consequences

Approaches to EDM• Utilitarian Approach

• Conceived in 19th century by Jeremy Benthem and J S Mill

• To choose the action that produces greatest good for greatest number

• Identify the courses of action available• See who all will be affected by each action and

assess benefits or harms derived from each• Choose the action that produce maximum benefits

and least harm

Approaches to EDM• Rights Approach

• Conceived in 18th century by Immanuel Kant• Focuses on the individual’s right to choose for him/herself.• People have a fundamental and moral right to choose freely

what they will do with their lives and right to have these choices respected

– Right to the truth, right of privacy, right of not to be injured, right to what is agreed

• It is a violation to use people in ways they do not freely choose

• While deciding the action is ethical or unethical, we must ask, does the action respect the moral rights of anyone?

• Actions are wrong to the extent they violate the rights of individuals.

Approaches to EDM• Fairness or Justice Approach

• Has its roots in the teaching of Aristotle• “equals should be treated equally and unequals

unequally”• The question to be asked is How fair an action is?

Does it treat everyone in the same way or it shows favoritism and discrimination?

• Both favoritism and unjust are wrong

Approaches to EDM• Common Good Approach

• Assumes that the society comprises of individuals whose own good is in line with community’s good.

• Common good is certain general condition that are ‘equally ….’ to everyone’s advantage

• We focus on ensuring that the social policies, systems, institutions, environment are beneficial to all

Approaches to EDM• Virtue Approach

• Virtue are attitudes or character trait that enable us to be and act in a way to develop our highest potential, to pursue the ideals we have adopted.

• These ideals are discovered through thoughtful reflection on what kind of people we have the potential to become

• In dealing with an ethical problem we might ask, what kind of person should I be? What will promote the development of character within myself and community?

Eth

ical

Pro

blem

sol

ving

• What benefits and harm will each course of action produce and which alternative will lead to best overall consequences?

• What moral rights do the affected parties have and which course of action best respect those rights?

• Which course of action treats everyone the same except when morally justifiable and does not show favoritism or discrimination?

• Which course of action is in lime with the common good?

• Which course of action develops moral values?

Decision Making Process• Describe the problem• Determine whether there is an ethical issue or an

ethical dilemma• Identify and rank the key values and principles• Gather your information• Review any applicable Code of Ethics• Determine the options• Select a course of action• Put your plan into action.• Evaluate the results

Describe the Problem

• Ethical problems are always embedded in a context.

• Circumstances impact upon the problem definition (for whom does the problem exist? What is the scenario?)

• Beware of the tendency to look toward the clinical or purely legal perspective for guidance.

Determine Whether There Is an Ethical Dilemma

• “Dilemma”– greek word : ‘di’- two, ‘limos’-horns. i.e. “Two horned”• Arises when

– X versus Y or ____ versus ____– “good” versus “bad” options OR “good” versus “good” options OR “bad” versus “bad” options

• Dilemma becomes ethical when the good or bad options seem to have a moral component (eg. confidentiality vs. prevention of harm, self determination vs. worker’s perception of client’s best interests, freedom vs. safety)

• Terms of an ethical dilemma must be ethical in nature, not legal. Means, If something is a law, you then have the ethical choice to follow the law or not.

• If you find it easy to articulate the perceived best interest as being on one side, you might ask, “who determines what is in the best interest?” You? Courts? Client? Family?

• Remember, most individuals will probably perceive their own preferences as being in their own best interest.

Identify and Prioritize the Key Values and Principles

• What reasons can you provide for prioritizing one competing value over another?

• Understand that a resolution to a dilemma which goes against an individual’s personal set of values has very little chance of success.

Gather Your Information

• Do you have all the known facts?• Do you understand the applicable laws or

legalities?• Do you have all relevant policies available to

review?• Are you clear about the individual’s views and

personal values?* Don’t hesitate to seek out consultation.

Review Any Applicable Code of Ethics

• Not legal documents, but professionals are bound to code and can be sued for breach

• Look for the following:-- mission statement-- values base of the organization-- ethical principles to guide practice-- ethical standards

• Codes can be revised or updated as needed

Determine the Options

• List all possible actionable options• Weigh the cost/benefits of each option• Seek out additional points of view

Step Seven: Select a Course of Action

• Discard the least desirable option.• Discard any which you can not put into

action.• Discard any options which violate the

values systems of those affected.• Recognize that your final choice will be

impacted by your personal values.

Put Your Plan Into Action

• …Reflects on the outcome with a sense that you have truly approached this ethical dilemma with the best of intentions and to the best of your ability.

Evaluate

• Evaluate the consequences for each person involved (client, family members, co-workers, agency, etc.)

• Consider submitting your most difficult cases to an ethics review board or peer consultants for feedback.

Also…

• Discuss the case with your ethical review committee or board

• Don’t have one? Create one.