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PSY 321PSY 321

Research Methods Research Methods in Social in Social

Psychology Psychology

Dr. SanchezDr. Sanchez

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Today’s PlanToday’s Plan Developing IdeasDeveloping Ideas Refining IdeasRefining Ideas Testing IdeasTesting Ideas

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Developing IdeasDeveloping Ideas

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Beginning the Research Beginning the Research ProcessProcess

Step #1: Start asking questions.Step #1: Start asking questions.

Step #2: Search the literature.Step #2: Search the literature.

Step #3: Begin shaping the idea into a Step #3: Begin shaping the idea into a hypothesis:hypothesis: An explicit, testable prediction about the An explicit, testable prediction about the

conditions under which an event will occurconditions under which an event will occur

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TheoriesTheories An organized set of principles used to An organized set of principles used to

explain observed phenomena.explain observed phenomena. Usually evaluated in terms of three Usually evaluated in terms of three

criteria:criteria: Simplicity (Parsimony).Simplicity (Parsimony). Comprehensiveness.Comprehensiveness. GenerativityGenerativity

Preference for “mini-theories” rather than Preference for “mini-theories” rather than the all-encompassing grand theory.the all-encompassing grand theory.

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Basic and Applied Basic and Applied ResearchResearch

Basic researchBasic research: Designed to test a : Designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific specific hypothesis from a specific theory.theory. Identifies “basic” principles underlying Identifies “basic” principles underlying

real-world phenomena.real-world phenomena. Applied researchApplied research: Designed to find : Designed to find

solutions to practical problems.solutions to practical problems. ““Applies” basic research findings to Applies” basic research findings to

real-world phenomena.real-world phenomena.

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Refining IdeasRefining IdeasDefining and Measuring Defining and Measuring

Social Psychological VariablesSocial Psychological Variables

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Conceptual & Operational Conceptual & Operational DefinitionsDefinitions

empirical realizationempirical realization translating the conceptual or abstract translating the conceptual or abstract

variables contained in your hypothesis to variables contained in your hypothesis to real, measurable constructsreal, measurable constructs

conceptual variableconceptual variable – abstract level – abstract level operational variableoperational variable – the way you – the way you

measure the conceptual variablemeasure the conceptual variable

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Effects of Guilt Effects of Guilt (Regan, Williams, & Sparling, 1972)(Regan, Williams, & Sparling, 1972)

people who feel guilty are more people who feel guilty are more likely to help others than people likely to help others than people who do not feel guiltywho do not feel guilty

description of studydescription of study Ps were asked to take a paid actor’s Ps were asked to take a paid actor’s

(i.e., a confederate) picture in mall(i.e., a confederate) picture in mall Operationalization of guiltOperationalization of guilt

½ Ps were induced to believe that they ½ Ps were induced to believe that they had broken his very expensive camerahad broken his very expensive camera

½ Ps were informed that the camera ½ Ps were informed that the camera malfunctioned all of the time; they were malfunctioned all of the time; they were not responsiblenot responsible

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Construct ValidityConstruct Validity Used to evaluate the manipulation and Used to evaluate the manipulation and

measurement of variables.measurement of variables. Refers to the extent to which:Refers to the extent to which:

The manipulations in an experiment really The manipulations in an experiment really manipulate the conceptual variables they manipulate the conceptual variables they were designed to manipulate.were designed to manipulate.

The measures (often self-report) used in The measures (often self-report) used in the study really measure the conceptual the study really measure the conceptual variablesvariables

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Measuring Variables: Measuring Variables: Self-ReportsSelf-Reports

Participants disclose their thoughts, Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions.feelings, desires, and actions.

Problems with self-reports:Problems with self-reports: Not always accurate and possibly Not always accurate and possibly

misleading.misleading. Bogus PipelineBogus Pipeline

Affected by the way in which questions Affected by the way in which questions are asked.are asked.

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How Many Hours How Many Hours of TV Do You Watch?of TV Do You Watch?

((Schwarz et al. 1985)

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Measuring Variables: Measuring Variables: Self-ReportsSelf-Reports

Participants disclose their thoughts, Participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions.feelings, desires, and actions.

Problems with self-reports:Problems with self-reports: Not always accurate and possibly misleading.Not always accurate and possibly misleading. Social desirable respondingSocial desirable responding

Bogus PipelineBogus Pipeline Affected by the way in which questions are Affected by the way in which questions are

asked.asked. Affected by participants’ memory for past Affected by participants’ memory for past

eventsevents How can we compensate for that????How can we compensate for that????

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EXPERIENCE SAMPLINGEXPERIENCE SAMPLING Interval contingentInterval contingent

Participants are asked to report “state” Participants are asked to report “state” feelings at regular intervals.feelings at regular intervals.

Signal contingentSignal contingent Participants are asked to report “state” Participants are asked to report “state”

feelings upon signal.feelings upon signal. Event contingent Event contingent

Participants are asked to report “state” Participants are asked to report “state” feelings in certain situations (at school, feelings in certain situations (at school, work, with family)work, with family)

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Testing IdeasTesting IdeasResearch DesignsResearch Designs

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Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research Goal is to describe people and their Goal is to describe people and their

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Observational studiesObservational studies

Interrater reliabilityInterrater reliability Archival studies = existing recordsArchival studies = existing records SurveysSurveys

Importance of random samplingImportance of random sampling A method of selection in which everyone in a A method of selection in which everyone in a

population has an equal chance of selectionpopulation has an equal chance of selection

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Most Common MethodsMost Common Methods We’ll focus on two other methods:We’ll focus on two other methods:

Correlational designsCorrelational designs Experimental designsExperimental designs

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Correlational DesignsCorrelational Designs Represents the strength of the relationship Represents the strength of the relationship

between two variablesbetween two variables e.g., # of hours of media exposure to violence & e.g., # of hours of media exposure to violence &

level of aggressionlevel of aggression e.g., sickness/illness and optimisme.g., sickness/illness and optimism e.g., ability to delay gratification as a child and e.g., ability to delay gratification as a child and

success in collegesuccess in college Concurrent v. ProspectiveConcurrent v. Prospective

Correlation coefficient (“r”) ranges from +1 to Correlation coefficient (“r”) ranges from +1 to -1-1 e.g., r = +.34e.g., r = +.34 e.g., r = -.52e.g., r = -.52

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Interpreting CorrelationsInterpreting Correlations Positive correlationPositive correlation

increaseincrease in exposure associated with in exposure associated with increaseincrease in aggression in aggression

Negative correlationNegative correlation increaseincrease in exposure associated with in exposure associated with

decreasedecrease in aggression in aggression

No correlationNo correlation Variables are not relatedVariables are not related

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Correlations: Positive, Correlations: Positive, Negative, and NoneNegative, and None

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Correlation Correlation ≠≠ Causation Causation

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Why can’t we infer Why can’t we infer causality?causality?

Reverse-Causality ProblemReverse-Causality ProblemX X → Y → Y or or Y ← XY ← X

Is there a relationship between exposure to

violent TV and aggression?

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Why can’t we infer Why can’t we infer causality?causality?

Reverse-Causality ProblemReverse-Causality ProblemX X → Y → Y or or Y ← XY ← X

Third-variable problemThird-variable problemA A → X → X andand A → YA → Y

e.g., ice cream sales (X) and violence (Y) (r = e.g., ice cream sales (X) and violence (Y) (r = +.29)+.29)

What is A in these cases? What is the third What is A in these cases? What is the third variable that can explain this relationship?variable that can explain this relationship?

VERY IMPORTANT FOR INTERPRETING VERY IMPORTANT FOR INTERPRETING NEWS ABOUT HEALTH RESEARCH!!!NEWS ABOUT HEALTH RESEARCH!!!

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NEW YORK TIMES NEW YORK TIMES ARTICLEARTICLE

Coffee as a Health Drink? Coffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some BenefitsStudies Find Some Benefits

““Researchers have found strong evidence that Researchers have found strong evidence that coffee reduces the risk of several serious coffee reduces the risk of several serious ailments, including diabetes, heart disease and ailments, including diabetes, heart disease and cirrhosis of the liver.”cirrhosis of the liver.”

““Still, after controlling for age, smoking and Still, after controlling for age, smoking and alcohol consumption, women who drank one to alcohol consumption, women who drank one to five cups a day — caffeinated or decaffeinated five cups a day — caffeinated or decaffeinated — reduced their risk of death from all causes — reduced their risk of death from all causes during the study by 15 to 19 percent during the study by 15 to 19 percent compared with those who drank none.”compared with those who drank none.”

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Explaining Correlations: Explaining Correlations: Three PossibilitiesThree Possibilities

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Advantages of Correlational Advantages of Correlational MethodsMethods

Allow assessment of behavior as it occurs in Allow assessment of behavior as it occurs in people’s everyday livespeople’s everyday lives

Allow study of variables that cannot be studied Allow study of variables that cannot be studied in experimental designsin experimental designs Gender, Age, RaceGender, Age, Race

Establishes that a relationships between 2 Establishes that a relationships between 2 variables existsvariables exists

One very serious disadvantageOne very serious disadvantage CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!

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ExperimentsExperiments Cornerstone of social psychological Cornerstone of social psychological

research.research. Used to examine cause-and-effect Used to examine cause-and-effect

relationships.relationships. Two essential characteristics:Two essential characteristics:

Researcher has control over the Researcher has control over the experimental procedures.experimental procedures.

Participants are Participants are randomly assignedrandomly assigned to to different treatment conditions.different treatment conditions.

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Random Sampling vs. Random Random Sampling vs. Random AssignmentAssignment

Random SamplingRandom Sampling

Selecting Ps to be in Selecting Ps to be in study so that study so that everyone in everyone in population has an population has an equal chance of being equal chance of being in the study.in the study.

Representative Representative samples samples GeneralizationGeneralization

Random AssignmentRandom Assignment

Assigning Ps (who are already in study) to the different conditions so that each P as equal chance of being in any of the conditions.

Equalizes the conditions of experiment so that it is unlikely that conditions differ because of pre-existing differences

Required for inferences of causality.

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VariablesVariables Independent VariableIndependent Variable

variable that we expect causes an outcomevariable that we expect causes an outcome the antecedent eventthe antecedent event variable that the experimenter can control variable that the experimenter can control

and manipulateand manipulate Dependent VariableDependent Variable

the variables measured to see if they are the variables measured to see if they are affected by IVaffected by IV

““the outcome variable” or “the effect”the outcome variable” or “the effect” it’s value depends on the changes introduced it’s value depends on the changes introduced

by the IVby the IV

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IVs and ConditionsIVs and Conditions Must have two conditions (also called “levels”) of Must have two conditions (also called “levels”) of

the IV in order to demonstrate that the IV has an the IV in order to demonstrate that the IV has an effect on the DVeffect on the DV

Experimental group (IV present) vs. control group Experimental group (IV present) vs. control group (IV not present)(IV not present)

ExampleExample interested in mood and helpinginterested in mood and helping

experimental group – told they received “A” or experimental group – told they received “A” or “F”“F”

control group – does not grade feedbackcontrol group – does not grade feedback

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Laboratory ExperimentsLaboratory Experiments Conducted in settings in which:Conducted in settings in which:

The environment can be The environment can be controlled.controlled.E.g., odor, the noise levelE.g., odor, the noise level

The participants can be carefully The participants can be carefully studied.studied.E.g., Ps remain in the same seat, E.g., Ps remain in the same seat, can be recorded, etc. can be recorded, etc.

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Field ExperimentsField Experiments Conducted in real-world settings.Conducted in real-world settings. Advantage: People are more likely to Advantage: People are more likely to

act naturally.act naturally. Disadvantage: Experimenter has less Disadvantage: Experimenter has less

control (“quasi-experiments”).control (“quasi-experiments”).

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METHODSMETHODS Film: “Understanding Research”, Film: “Understanding Research”,

Episode 2 of series, “Discovering Episode 2 of series, “Discovering Psychology”Psychology”

Available at Media Library (Kilmer)Available at Media Library (Kilmer)

Next class: Finish Research Methods Next class: Finish Research Methods Lecture (Chapter 2), Begin “The Lecture (Chapter 2), Begin “The Self” (Chapter 3)Self” (Chapter 3)

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Some exercisesSome exercises

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Crusco & Wetzel (1984)Crusco & Wetzel (1984) interested in how touching influences interested in how touching influences

individuals’ perceptions of othersindividuals’ perceptions of others

description of studydescription of study waitress performed normal dutieswaitress performed normal duties when she gave change to customer, she when she gave change to customer, she

approached the paying customer from the side, approached the paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s your said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s your change.”change.”

1/3 – no touch control condition1/3 – no touch control condition 1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition 1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition

left a blank survey for customers to completeleft a blank survey for customers to complete collected survey and tipcollected survey and tip

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Crusco & Wetzel (1984)Crusco & Wetzel (1984) interested in how touching influences individuals’ interested in how touching influences individuals’

perceptions of othersperceptions of others

description of studydescription of study waitress performed normal dutieswaitress performed normal duties when she gave change to customer, she approached the when she gave change to customer, she approached the

paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out paying customer from the side, leaned forward, and w/out making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s making eye contact, said in a friendly yet firm tone, “Here’s your change.”your change.”

1/3 – no touch control condition1/3 – no touch control condition 1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition1/3 – a brief hand-touch condition 1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition1/3 – a longer shoulder-touch condition

left a blank survey for customers to completeleft a blank survey for customers to complete collected survey and tipcollected survey and tip IV: nature of physical contactIV: nature of physical contact DV: ratings of waitress on Q’aire and amt of DV: ratings of waitress on Q’aire and amt of

tiptip

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A social psychologist wants to assess the optimal level of crowd noise for enhancing the shooting accuracy of professional basketball players. She has individual professional basketball players shoot free throws in a gym as she varies the intensity of crowd noise by playing an audiotape of a crowd at low, medium, and high levels. She randomly assigns the players to the conditions.IV: Conditions:DV:Design:

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A social psychologists wants to assess the optimal level of crowd noise for enhancing the shooting accuracy of professional basketball players. She has individual professional basketball players shoot free throws in a gym as she varies the intensity of crowd noise by playing an audiotape of a crowd at low, medium, and high levels. She randomly assigns the players to the conditions.IV: Crowd Noise Conditions: low, medium, high

DV: shooting accuracy of free throws

Design: True experiment

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Two psychologists are interested in the effects of mood on helping (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). They go to shopping malls and set up observation near phone booths. Their participants are individuals who use the phone booths when the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the Ps, the researchers leave a quarter to be found near the booth. For all of the Ps, when the phone call is completed and the person leaves the telephone booth, a confederate walks by the booth, and drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers watch to see if the Ps help pick up the dropped papers.

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Two psychologists are interested in the effects of Two psychologists are interested in the effects of mood on helpingmood on helping (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). (based on Isen & Levin, 1972). They go to shopping malls and set up observation They go to shopping malls and set up observation near phone booths. Their participants are near phone booths. Their participants are individuals who use the phone booths when the individuals who use the phone booths when the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the vicinity is otherwise unoccupied. For half of the Ps, the researchers Ps, the researchers leave a quarter to be found near leave a quarter to be found near the booththe booth.. For all of the Ps, when the phone call is For all of the Ps, when the phone call is completed and the person leaves the telephone completed and the person leaves the telephone booth, a confederate walks by the booth, and booth, a confederate walks by the booth, and drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers drops a file folder full of papers. The researchers watch to see watch to see if the Ps help pick up the dropped if the Ps help pick up the dropped paperspapers.. ConceptualConceptual

IV: MoodIV: Mood DV: HelpingDV: Helping

OperationalOperational IV: finds a quarterIV: finds a quarter DV: help pick up DV: help pick up

paperpaper

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Researchers are interested in influences on self-Researchers are interested in influences on self-esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess how performing a difficult task under pressure how performing a difficult task under pressure influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult ones. Crossed with and half are given difficult ones. Crossed with this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are given 30 minutes to complete the task. After given 30 minutes to complete the task. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, completing as many of the anagrams as they can, Ps are given a Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Ps are given a Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire” that is really a measure Feelings Questionnaire” that is really a measure of self-esteem.of self-esteem.

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Researchers are interested in influences on Researchers are interested in influences on self-self-esteem.esteem. Specifically, researchers want to assess Specifically, researchers want to assess how performing a how performing a difficult taskdifficult task under under pressure pressure influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are influences college students’ self-esteem. Ps are given a set of anagrams to solve. given a set of anagrams to solve. Half are Half are randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, randomly assigned to receive very easy anagrams, and half are given difficult onesand half are given difficult ones. Crossed with . Crossed with this, half are randomly assigned to be given this, half are randomly assigned to be given 10 10 minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are minutes to complete the anagrams, and half are given 30 minutesgiven 30 minutes to complete the task. After to complete the task. After completing as many of the anagrams as they can, completing as many of the anagrams as they can, Ps are given a Ps are given a Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Q’aire labeled “Thoughts and Feelings Questionnaire”Questionnaire” that is really a measure of self- that is really a measure of self-esteem.esteem. ConceptualConceptual

IV1: task difficultyIV1: task difficulty IV2: pressureIV2: pressure DV: self-esteemDV: self-esteem

OperationalOperational IV1: easy vs. hardIV1: easy vs. hard IV2: 10 vs. 30 minutesIV2: 10 vs. 30 minutes DV: score on Q’aireDV: score on Q’aire