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The Psychology of Motivation and Persuasion

A Tutorial for Presenters and Slide DesignersBy

Glenna Shaw

IntroductionRecently there was a campaign on facebook where friends were asked to change their profile picture to a cartoon so there would be no human faces on facebook for XX number of days. Additionally the campaign was supposed to promote the awareness of child abuse.Within a short period of time the campaign went viral and it got me thinking, “Why did all those people participate in this? What is it that motivates people to action?”A lot of research later I now have my answer and I’ve put together this tutorial to assist you with creating your own persuasive messages.This tutorial contains the theories on motivation and persuasion that I believe are most relevant for presenters and slide designers. In most cases, I elected to quote my sources and include the reference. I follow each section with my own summary explaining how you, as a presenter, can use the information in the section.The final chapter diagrams several processes and has five practice scenarios to test your comprehension of the material.I hope you enjoy learning what motivates us as much as I did.

Using this Tutorial

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Biological Motivation

Emotion

Cognitive Motivation

Humanistic Psychology

Persuasive Communication

Processes and Practice

References

BIOLOGICAL MOTIVATION

Carrot and StickThe idea that organisms are motivated to pursue pleasure and avoid pain was proposed by the Greek philosopher Epicurus, who called this hedonism. [1]

The English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham, developed his ideas based on hedonism in the early years of the Industrial Revolution, around 1800. Bentham’s view was that all people are self-interested and are motivated by the desire to avoid pain and find pleasure. Any worker will work only if the reward is big enough, or the punishment sufficiently unpleasant.This view - the ‘carrot and stick’ approach - was built into the philosophies of the age and is still to be found, especially in the older, more traditional sectors of industry. [

4]

Drive Reduction TheoryClark Hull conceived of all motivation as coming originally from biological imbalances or needs. The organism was thrown into movement (was motivated) when it needed something that was not present at its current location. A need, in Hull's system, was a biological requirement of the organism. Hunger was the need for more energy. Thirst was the need for more water. Motivation, to Hull, was aimed at making up or erasing a deficiency or lack of something in the organism.Hull used the word drive to describe the state of behavioral arousal resulting from a biological need. In Hull's system, drive was the energy that powered behavior. But drive was not pleasant. Drive was an uncomfortable state resulting from a biological need, so drive was something the animal tried to eliminate. The animal searched for food in order to reduce the hunger drive. Hull believed the animal would repeat any behavior that reduced a drive, if the same need occurred again. Therefore Hull's theory was called a drive-reduction theory of motivation.The abandonment of Hull's theory occurred about 30 years after he proposed it, but not before it had a big impact on the field. [1]

Opponent Process

In present day theories, the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are conceived as components of a control system. When a system must be delicately controlled, this is best accomplished with two forces that act in opposite directions.Pleasure and pain are powerful but opposed parts of a hedonic (pleasure/pain) control system that regulates motivation. Richard Solomon of the University of Pennsylvania suggested they should be regarded as opponent processes similar to an accelerator and brake.Hedonic contrast is one of the phenomena Solomon explains with the opponent process theory. This is the tendency of the pleasure/pain control system to rebound in the opposite direction after an intense experience of either pleasure or pain. [1]

“Too much of a good thing” and the runner’s high are examples of opponent process theory. Too much pleasure becomes pain and too much pain becomes pleasure.

Motivational ConflictsSometimes the urge to do something worthy or good or pleasurable is directly opposed by the fact that it involves pain or inconvenience or hard work. Then the person is in conflict between two opposite motives. That is one form of motivational conflict called an approach/avoidance conflict. One may also feel torn between two different pleasures. Or one may be forced to choose between two pains. Each of these is a classic motivational conflict. Approach/avoidance conflicts. The person is attracted and repulsed by the same stimulus or situation.Approach/approach conflicts. The person is forced to choose between two different desirable stimuli.Avoidance/avoidance conflicts. The person is forced to choose between two different undesirable alternatives.Avoidance tendencies tend to grow stronger as an event approaches. This has implications you can observe in your own life. A distant event such as a dentist appointment might seem desirable, and you make plans for it. But as the day approaches, the event seems less desirable, or you are more inclined to avoid it. This can happen with desirable goals as well as things you would rather avoid: it is called "getting cold feet."Vacillation (going back and forth) is common in situations of motivational conflict. If you are attracted to a person (an approach tendency) but feel shy and inhibited (an avoidance tendency) you may "go back and forth" a lot, in your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. First you lean one way, then the other. [1]

Using Biological Motivation

You can choose to meet or deny your audiences biological needs, i.e. hunger, thirst, waste elimination.While it may seem counter-productive, having your audience in a state of distress is more motivational. The trick is to have the motivation geared to your goals as opposed to distracting from them.For example, it’s preferable that your slightly hungry audience pay closer attention to you than to have a ravenous audience wishing you’d hurry up and finish so they can get to lunch.A deft presenter can weave the anticipation of satiating that hunger to their own ends.

EMOTION

James-Lange Theory

Event

Arousal

Interpretation

Emotion

We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration, dryness of the mouth, etc. This theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of these, rather than being the cause of them.The sequence thus is as follows:Event ==> arousal ==> interpretation ==> emotionThe bodily sensation prepares us for action, as in the Fight-or-Flight reaction. Emotions grab our attention and at least attenuate slower cognitive processing.This is not a new theory and was proposed in 1884. It combined the ideas of William James and Danish physiologist Carl Lange, who largely independently arrived at the same conclusion. [3]

The James-Lange theory of emotion argues that an event causes physiological arousal first and then we interpret this arousal. Only after our interpretation of the arousal can we experience emotion. If the arousal is not noticed or is not given any thought, then we will not experience any emotion based on this event. [2]

It was largely supplanted by the Cannon-Bard theory, but of late, it has made something of a come-back, although the notion of causality is not as strong and there is ongoing uncertainty as to the chicken-and-egg question of which comes first, physiological and emotional feelings. [3]

Cannon-Bard TheoryWhen a stimulating event happens, we feel emotions and physiological changes (such as muscular tension, sweating, etc.) at the same time. The sequence thus is as follows:Event ==> Simultaneous arousal and emotion [3]

The Cannon-Bard theory argues that we experience physiological arousal and emotional at the same time, but gives no attention to the role of thoughts or outward behavior. [2]

This was a refutation of the James-Lange theory (which proposed that emotions followed arousal) by Cannon and Bard in the late 1920s. [3]

Event

ArousalEmotion

Lazarus TheoryIn the absence of physiological arousal, we decide what to feel after interpreting or explaining what has just happened. Two things are important in this: whether we interpret the event as good or bad for us, and what we believe is the cause of the event.The sequence thus is as follows:Event ==> thinking ==> Simultaneous arousal and emotionThis challenges the two-factor separation of arousal and emotion, supporting the Cannon and Bard theory albeit with the addition of the thinking step.In primary appraisal, we consider how the situation affects our personal well-being. In secondary appraisal we consider how we might cope with the situation.This is also called Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion. [3]

Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience an emotion.[2]

Event

Thought

ArousalEmotion

Facial ExpressionsDarwin commented on the inborn emotional expressiveness of babies. Carroll Izard and colleagues at the University of Delaware identified 10 distinct facial expressions common in babyhood: interest, distress, disgust, joy, anger, surprise, shame, fear, contempt, and guilt.Paul Ekman is a leading investigator of facial expression. Ekman investigated Darwin's belief that all humans interpret facial expressions the same way. He showed pictures of humans expressing the emotions of happiness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust, and sadness to people from cultures all over the world. People in different cultures all interpreted these expressions the same way.Ekman is famous for a coding system that identifies 80 distinct muscles in the face. This system provides a precise way to define facial expressions. That makes it a very useful tool for researchers who wish to make precise definitions of facial expressions. [1]

Ekman has a number of publications if you’d like to learn more.

Using EmotionsEmotions are a key component of motivation and persuasion. Both positive and negative emotions are effective.Although the theories conflict on the order of occurrence, they all agree that arousal is necessary to elicit an emotional response.As presenters, a visual communication is our most effective tool for arousing an audience.For example, the image at left could be used for a presentation on gun control to elicit the emotion of fear.You should be able to judge the emotional impact of your message by observing the facial expressions of your audience.

COGNITIVE MOTIVATION

CompetenceIn 1959 Robert W. White proposed a new concept: effectance motivation. Effectance was described as a "tendency to explore and influence the environment.“White suggested that the "master reinforcer" for humans is personal competence. He defined competence as "the ability to interact effectively with the environment."Unlike biological motives such as hunger and thirst, competence motives are never really satisfied. They serve to enhance the abilities of the organism, rather than to regulate a biological process. They are not based on a state of biological deprivation. Rather, they help an organism improve itself.Notice there is a subtle and possibly important difference between(1) seeking life activities which "play to your strengths," which is certainly natural if people want to feel competent, and (2) the enjoyment of mastering new skills as typical of successful entrepreneurs. These are not the same thing. If you merely seek situations that make you feel competent, you are likely to exercise old skills, and you are unlikely to advance. The people who succeed as entrepreneurs were those who sought competency in new skills. [1]

The Joy of ProcessingHumans seem to enjoy combinatorial play. We take patterns we have learned, and we put them together in new and different ways. Here are some varieties of cognitive play.Visual patterns People enjoy complex visual designs, images, and patterns in a variety of media, such as paintings, sculpture, slides, movies, videos, sculptures, quilts, arabesques, scrimshaw...Language patterns People enjoy complex language patterns in a variety of media. They enjoy creating and comprehending books, magazines, newspapers, plays, poems, jokes, oratory, debate, lyrics, chants, prayers, questions, exhortations, raps, stories, novels, reviews, editorials, autobiographies, travelogues, histories...Motor patterns People enjoy complex motor activity in a variety of settings. They enjoy participating in baseball, basketball, football, tennis, volleyball, skiing, running, jogging, playing Frisbee, dancing, marching, drilling, mime, kluge, lacrosse, cricket, tiddly-winks...Auditory and musical patterns People enjoy singing, humming, yodeling, playing about 5000 different instruments, listening to radio, records, tapes, and CDs...Mathematical and numerical patterns People enjoy arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, topography, calculus, set theory... Whatever the form of information processing, somebody enjoys making designs with it, trying experiments with it, or just playing with it. Competence motivation definitely influences our choice of such "play." We tend to play with skills and abilities that make us feel competent and, through variation and practice, further increase our competency. [1]

Hedgehog TheoryIn mental activity of any sort, a moderate level of novelty and challenge is pleasurable. Too much change too fast is overwhelming and unpleasant. We seek to experience events which lie somewhere between chaos (on the one hand) and boredom (on the other).Edward L. Walker developed this concept in his hedgehog theory of behavior. The name "hedgehog theory" is a reference to a saying by the ancient Greek poet Archilochus, who said, "The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing." Foxes have a different trick for every situation. They are versatile and clever. Hedgehogs have only one trick (curling up into a spiny ball), and they use it in all situations, whenever they are vulnerable. And it is a very effective trick.Walker called his theory a hedgehog theory because, like the hedgehog, it has one trick. It explains all behavior using just one principle: the idea that subjective complexity determines preference.Preference is measured by giving a person free choice of alternatives to determine what he/she likes to do. Walker's theory holds that persons prefer to do things that are neither too simple nor too complex. They seek activities that are at an optimum level of complexity.The relationship between preference and complexity can be shown on an inverted-U shaped curve. The zero point represents a neutral hedonic reaction, neither pleasure nor pain. When complexity is too low, the line drops below zero. This means events are too simple, which makes them boring and unpleasant. When the complexity is moderate, enjoyment is greatest. When complexity is too great, events become unpleasant—chaotic and overwhelming. [1]

-5

0

5

Complexity

Pref

eren

ce

0

Optimal Level of Complexity

Arousal TheoryMental arousal is necessary for effective functioning. We need a certain level of activation in order to be sufficiently motivated to achieve goals, do good work and so on.The Yerkes-Dodson Law points out how people need a certain amount of activation to be motivated but not have too much stimulation. We have an upper limit to activation, beyond which we become overly stressed. People will seek activation through different types of stimulation, including novelty, complexity, variation and uncertainty. At a low level of activation, performance is decreased due to three factors:• A lack of alertness • Dulling of the senses • Limited muscular coordination These in turn can lead to increased error or accident, and slower completion of tasks. Underactivation also leads to boredom and seeking of alternative stimulation (including by sabotage), unless the person has a low activation preference, where they are happy to daydream or otherwise be lazy. [3]

0123456

Arousal (Stress)

Perf

orm

ance Upper Limit to Activation

Cognitive ConsistencyWhen our inner systems (beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one another and when these are also supported by external evidence, then we have a comfortable state of affairs. We also have a very strong need to believe we are being consistent with social norms. When there is conflict between behaviors that are consistent with inner systems and behaviors that are consistent with social norms, the potential threat of social exclusion often sways us towards the latter, even though it may cause significant inner dissonance.Ways we achieve consistency between conflicting items include:• Denial or ignoring : 'I didn't see it happen.' • Rationalization and excuses : 'It was going to fall

anyway.' • Separation of items :'I don't use my car enough to

make a difference .' • Transcendence : 'Nobody is perfect.' • Changing item : 'I'll be more careful next time.' • Persuasion : 'I'm good, really, aren't I?' [3]

Cognitive DissonanceLeon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance is the best-known variation of consistency theory. Festinger assumed that, because people value consistency in their attitudes and behavior, they seek to avoid tension and contradiction. One form of dissonance or contradiction is doing something you do not really want to do. People want to avoid feeling that way. Therefore, if asked to perform some behavior, people will usually rationalize doing it, say they enjoyed it, or describe it as worthwhile. They change their attitudes to be consistent with their behavior.Ben Franklin gave some peculiar advice that makes sense in the context of cognitive dissonance theory. Franklin said “If you want someone to like you, get that person to do you a favor.”This works because, once the person has put out time and energy to help you, the person must develop an attitude consistent with the behavior. So, to avoid dissonance, the person likes you. [1]

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Extrinsic Intrinsic

Intrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by internal factors, as opposed to the external drivers of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation drives me to do things just for the fun of it, or because I believe it is a good or right thing to do.Extrinsic motivation is when I am motivated by external factors, as opposed to the internal rewards of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation drives me to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.There is a paradox of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is far stronger a motivator than extrinsic motivation, yet external motivation can easily act to displace intrinsic motivation.When I do something, I have to explain why I do it. If I am being rewarded extrinsically for doing it, then I can explain to myself that I am doing it for the reward. In this way, rewards can decrease internal motivation as people work to gain the reward rather than because they like doing the work or believe it is a good thing to do.In effect, extrinsic motivations can change a pleasurable into work. [3]

Work Play

Reverse PsychologyPsychological reactance implies that people will react against anything that impinges on their freedom. This includes commands and opinions and suggestions. So, if you want to get somebody to do something, sometimes it helps to ask for the opposite. This is popularly termed reverse psychology.Reverse psychology and the forbidden fruit principle work in the marketplace, when certain products are banned as dangerous or undesirable. Some advertising executives say "there is no such thing as bad publicity." If a book gets banned in one area, sales soar in another area. If a movie is criticized as being in bad taste, many people want to see the movie, apparently because they are told not to. [1] Photo by Ralton Bentley

Using Cognitive Motivation

To take advantage of cognitive theories you need to learn as much about your audience as possible. Your message should have a challenging element but not so much that the audience cannot achieve the goal. The actions associated with your message should fit within the audience’s perception of themselves and their social network. Rewards of their actions should be intrinsic.It also doesn’t hurt if you can get your audience to do you a favor or if there’s a bit of naughtiness required.Apple is especially effective at using cognitive motivation by convincing us that their products are hip and cool, even though they’re more expensive than similar products and use proprietary software.

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

A Third Force of PsychologyAbraham Maslow could be considered a motivation theorist or a personality theorist. Maslow dealt with "higher motives" of human beings, what might be called existential or spiritual motives. They are some of the most powerful and uniquely human motivations.The two dominant theoretical perspectives in psychology when Maslow started his work in the 1940s were behaviorism and Freudianism. Both seemed inadequate for dealing with "ideal aspirations of the human being." Maslow felt that neither had much to say about what made people happy and psychologically healthy.Maslow proposed an alternative: a Third Force in psychology. This type of psychology would deal with important topics neglected by the other two: topics like human fulfillment, the search for meaning, and what it meant to be psychologically healthy. Maslow teamed with Rogers, Fromm, and other psychologists to form new professional associations and launch new journals devoted to Third Force psychology, also known as humanistic psychology. [1]

Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and ease of understanding. [4]

Maslow's motivational theory is vague and general and admits to many exceptions, so it cannot be tested definitively. This vagueness has made Maslow's pyramid as immortal as the great pyramids of Egypt. [1]

Maslow’s Pyramid• Helpin

g others self-actualize

• Personal Growth, Self-fulfillment

• Beauty, Balance, Form

Aesthetic Needs

• Knowledge, Meaning, Awareness

Cognitive Needs

• Achievement, Status, Reputation

Esteem Needs

• Family, Love, Relationships

Social Needs

• Protection, Security, Stability

Security Needs

• Air, Food, Drink, Sleep

Physiological Needs

Self-Actualization

Transcendence

B (Being) Needs

D (Deficiency) Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow believed that humans have specific needs that must be met and that if lower level needs go unmet, we can not possible strive for higher level needs. The Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower level, we must focus on basic issues such as food, sleep, and safety. Without food, without sleep, how could we possible focus on the higher level needs such as respect, education, and recognition?[2]

Self-ActualizersMaslow believed self-actualizers were living up to their full potential, bringing their best selves into being. They were not motivated by greed and self-interest; they seemed socially responsible, devoted to moving humanity in a good direction, no doubt aware of the problems in the world, yet fully engaged with life and happy to be alive.Maslow identified the following characteristics of "self-actualizing people."• They are productive and creative.• They are spontaneous, with a sharp wit and

sense of humor.• They appreciate higher values such as truth,

beauty, and justice, often combining them in various endeavors.• They are happy with life.• They are open to new ideas, curious, and

fascinated by reality itself.• They are "invariably involved in a cause outside

their own skin."[1]

The Peak ExperienceThe ultimate in uplifting moments is the peak experience: the moment of ecstasy, spiritual fulfillment, and bliss.According to Maslow, “Those moments of pure, positive happiness when all doubts, all fears, all inhibitions, all tensions, all weaknesses were left behind.”Peak experiences are often accompanied by a peculiar and distinctive feeling of "oneness with the universe." The feeling of separateness, distance, or alienation from the world disappears. During a peak experience, people feel loving and accepting of all creation. Maslow told of a subject who said that during a peak experience "I felt like a member of a family, not like an orphan."[1]

TranscendersMaslow called his final theory “Theory Z”.In Theory Z, Maslow described a new type of person. This type was called the transcender. Transcenders were people who consciously built the characteristics of peak experiences into everyday life.For the transcender, Maslow said, peak experiences become the high spots and validators of life.Transcenders "speak easily the language of being," finding it relatively easy to express thoughts and feelings about the nature of existence. They are "perpetually in awe of reality" and perceive sacredness in everyday things. In their daily work they are "conspicuously metamotivated," pursuing the B-needs such as truth and justice. Transcenders tend to beautify things, and they are more likely to have feelings of oneness with the environment. They are likely to be innovators, coming up with truly new ways of doing things instead of just following established paths.With Theory Z, anybody who was a reasonably good person leading a constructive life could legitimately claim the title of self-actualizer. A new niche (the transcender) was created for the Abraham Lincolns and the Mahatma Gandhis—the highly unusual types who take our awareness to new levels. [1]

Using Humanistic Psychology

Maslow’s theory focused on achieving the highest level of being human. From this perspective associating a noble cause with your message can influence your audience to action or least make them feel good about it.Al Gore’s movie “An Inconvenient Truth” is a great example of this. People shelled out millions to see a movie that was essentially a slide show but that was pretty much as far as it went. Although it did raise awareness and elicit some positive results, the message wasn’t persuasive enough to motivate the audience to action for more significant changes addressing global warming.

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATIONS

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..

..

Scarcity PrincipleIn our need to control our world, being able to choose is an important freedom. If something is scarce, we anticipate possible regret that we did not acquire it, and so we desire it more. This desire is increased further if we think that someone else might get it and hence gain social position that we might have had. [3]

Reciprocity NormThis is a very common social norm which says that if I give something to you or help you in any way, then you are obliged to return the favor.This norm is so powerful, it allows the initial giver to:• Ask for something in return, rather

than having to wait for a voluntary reciprocal act.

• Ask for more than was given. You can even exchange a smile for money.

Reciprocity also works at the level of liking. We like people who like us, and dislike those who dislike us. This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy.[3]

Social InfluenceSocial influence is the change in behavior that one person causes in another, intentionally or unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed person perceives themselves in relationship to the influencer, other people and society in general.Three areas of social influence are conformity, compliance and obedience.Conformity is changing how you behave to be more like others. This plays to belonging and esteem needs as we seek the approval and friendship of others. Conformity can run very deep, as we will even change our beliefs and values to be like those of our peers and admired superiors.Compliance is where a person does something that they are asked to do by another. They may choose to comply or not to comply, although the thoughts of social reward and punishment may lead them to compliance when they really do not want to comply.Obedience is different from compliance in that it is obeying an order from someone that you accept as an authority figure. In compliance, you have some choice. In obedience, you believe that you do not have a choice. Many military officers and commercial managers are interested only in obedience.[3]

Persuasive TermsResearch and experience have found that certain words are more persuasive than others. These are often called power words. Note that overuse of a power word has the opposite effect.The table below illustrates some effective power words. [3

]

Needs Positive Terms Negative Terms

Safety Guarantee, Proven Dangerous

Control Powerful, Strong Uncertain, Scarce

Understanding Truth, Real Change, Complicate

Greed Money, Cash, Save Lose, Stolen

Health Healthy, Good Sick, Old

Belonging Happy, Feel Wrong, Alone

Esteem Admire, Only Ridicule, Exclude

Identity You, We They, Them

Novelty New, Discover Outdated

Yale Attitude Change Approach

A Yale University multi-year, multi-project research into persuasive communication showed (amongst other things):Who (source of communication):The speaker should be credible and attractive to the audience. Says what (nature of communication):

Messages should not appear to be designed to persuade. Present two-sided arguments (refuting the ‘wrong’ argument, of course). If two people are speaking one after the other, it is best to go first (primacy effect). If two people are speaking with a delay between them, it is best to go last (recency effect).

To whom (the nature of the audience)Distract them during the persuasion Lower intelligence and moderate self-esteem helps. The best age range is 18-25.

ExampleWatch politicians. They do this wonderfully well. They look great. They talk through the other side's argument, making it first seem reasonable then highlighting all their problems. It all seems to be just common sense spoken by a really nice person. [3]

Using Persuasive Communications

The snake oil salesman of yesteryear may have become a cliché, but they were the masters of persuasion in their day. And the techniques they used are still applicable today.First and foremost, you need to be perceived as credible and trustworthy. Dress in appropriate business attire and know your topic. If you’re not an expert, lend yourself expertise through sources.Use (but don’t overuse) power words and don’t use a message that’s obviously persuasive.If possible, present a two-sided argument of your message showing your side as the right side.

Processes and Practice

Process of Motivation

Needs & Drives Tension Effort Performance Rewards

Environment

Need Satisfaction

Opportunity

Goals Ability

In the initiation a person starts feeling lacknesses. There is an arousal of need so urgent, that the bearer has to venture in search to satisfy it. This leads to creation of tension, which urges the person to forget everything else and cater to the aroused need first. This tension also creates drives and attitudes regarding the type of satisfaction that is desired. This leads a person to venture into the search of information. This ultimately leads to evaluation of alternatives where the best alternative is chosen. After choosing the alternative, an action is taken. Because of the performance of the activity satisfaction is achieved which than relieves the tension in the individual. [4]

Process of PersuasionWilliam McGuire proposed a model of attitude change that helps understand the Yale approach to persuasion.“Presentation” is McGuire’s term for the persuasive message. He then reasoned that people cannot be persuaded by a message they ignore, so after the message is presented to the audience the next step in the persuasion process is paying “attention.” Third, the audience must understand the message before it can influence their attitudes, so “comprehension” follows attention in his model. “Yielding” is McGuire’s term for acceptance, the point at which attitude change occurs. When a persuasive message succeeds at changing a listener’s mind (attitudes), McGuire says that the receiver has yielded to the message. The fifth step is “retention,” and it concerns how long the attitude change lasts. McGuire recognized that attitudes do change; if they were permanent, of course, we couldn’t hope to change them with our persuasive messages. But the very fact that attitudes do change (and can be changed) means that when we succeed at changing someone’s attitude, that change probably won’t last forever -- some other persuasive message (or experience) could change their attitudes again. Finally, McGuire considered “behavior” to be the ultimate goal of persuasive discourse. If we look at the persuasion that surrounds us -- sales messages advertising goods and services, political messages asking us to vote for politicians, public service messages urging us not to drink and drive, friends trying to get us to go see a movie or a concert -- we can see that persuasion often has action as the ultimate goal. [

6]

Formula for Positive Motivation

Goals

Capable

Context

Positive

Feelings

Positive Motivat

ion

There are four basic factors that build a positive motivation to change, both for individuals and groups:• Every person and every group has a collection of goals that are either straightforward and declared,

or vague and sub-conscious. People feel motivated to act when the action will fulfill one or more of these goals. In fact, motivation to change increases when one action will fulfill an increasing number of personal

• goals.• Motivation increases if you believe that you are capable of achieving this change (called “Capability

Beliefs” or “efficacy beliefs”)• Motivation increases if you believe that those around you (your family, your boss, your church,

your neighborhood) will grant you the opportunity and the support to do this new thing (called “Context Beliefs”)

• Having positive emotional feelings about achieving this new thing increases motivation as well.[5]

Elaboration Likelihood ModelElaboration

Route

Information Processing

Attitude Change

Petty and Cacioppo state that there are two “routes” to persuasion: central and peripheral. The central route to persuasion consists of thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message. When a receiver is doing central processing, he or she is being an active participant in the process of persuasion. Central processing has two prerequisites: It can only occur when the receiver has both the motivation and the ability to think about the message and its topic. If the listener doesn’t care about the topic of the persuasive message, he or she will almost certainly lack the motivation to do central processing. On the other hand, if the listener is distracted or has trouble understanding the message, he or she will lack the ability to do central processing.The peripheral route to persuasion occurs when the listener decides whether to agree with the message based on other cues besides the strength of the arguments or ideas in the message. For example, a listener may decide to agree with a message because the source appears to be an expert, or is attractive. The peripheral route also occurs when a listener is persuaded because he or she notices that a message has many arguments -- but lacks the ability or motivation to think about them individually. In other words, peripheral cues, like source expertise (credibility) or many arguments in one message, are a short-cut. I don’t want to or can’t think carefully about the ideas in this persuasive message, but it is a fair gamble to go ahead agree with the message if the source appears to be knowledgeable or if there are many arguments in support of the message. This route occurs when the auditor is unable or unwilling to engage in much thought on the message. Receivers engaged in peripheral processing are more passive than those doing central processing.[6]

Rational Model of Persuasion

BV

&/orM

ABehavior

The Rational Model of Persuasion is a theory which suggests that people think and behave in ways based on reasons and are relatively predictable. While it is true that some of the time people are not entirely logical or consistent; nevertheless, the rational model is useful in persuasion more often than not. The elements of the rational model can be represented by the formula above.That is, Beliefs plus Values (and/or Motives) combine to produce Attitudes and attitudes influence our behavior. For example, if a person BELIEVES (that it is a fact) that the death penalty will deter serious crime and if this person VALUES (thinks it is good to have) a crime free community, then it is likely this person will have a favorable attitude toward the death penalty. If such a person is sufficiently motivated s/he may take action (BEHAVIOR) to encourage passage of the death penalty by the state legislature. People who hold different beliefs or values on the death penalty will typically have different attitudes. A person who does not believe that the death penalty deters crime will not favor capital punishment as a way to make the neighborhood safer. For individuals who value the preservation of life in all circumstances, a belief that capital punishment deters crime is not likely to produce a favorable attitude toward the death penalty. [7]

Using ProcessesThe processes covered in this section provide a visual “roadmap” for you to use when crafting and delivering your message.Keep in mind that all motivation and/or persuasion begins with a need. It is up to you to convince your audience that they have a need and a desire to act on that need.In other words, if you want your persuasive message to be successful, you must give your audience an itch that they have to scratch.

Practice ScenariosAs I’ve said before, psychology is an imperfect science. And the theories relating to motivation and persuasion, like most things in psychology, are open to interpretation.The lessons you’ve just completed are my own choices of motivational theories that I believe are most useful for presenters.They are offered as guidance to help refine your persuasive communications.The following pages offer you five opportunities to practice your own analysis of scenarios using the theories you’ve just learned.Read each scenario and determine which items you think are most applicable to the scenario.You then have the opportunity to see my analysis of the scenario.

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario

You’re an author on a speaking tour promoting your new book that’s soon to be released. Although it’s expensive, your book has already sold out in pre-orders so no more first printings are available. You let your audience know that you have several copies with you and for 25% above retail they can purchase a book with your signature and a personal message. The additional 25% cost will be donated to a local charity. You also let them know they’ll be doing you a favor because the books are heavy and difficult for you transport while you’re on tour.

Scenario #1Biological Motivation

Carrot & Stick

Drive Reduction

Opponent Process

Motivational Conflicts

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus Theory

Facial Expressions

Cognitive Motivation

Competence

Joy of Processing

Hedgehog Theory

Arousal Theory

Cognitive Consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Reverse Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs

Persuasive Communication

Scarcity Principle

Reciprocity Norm

Social Influence

Persuasive Terms

Yale Attitude Change

Click here to see my analysisObviously this scenario is using the scarcity principle. Persuasive terms like sold out and first printing reinforce this principle. Social influence and cognitive consistency come into play because of the popularity of the book. There is an element of motivational conflict because of the expense, however this is mitigated by the humanistic action of donating the extra cost to a charity. Cognitive dissonance and reciprocity norm are used by convincing the audience they’re doing you a favor. The emotions of fear and envy are in play which could be any of the emotional theories.

Scenario

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario

You’re giving a training presentation. You include a quiz or similar activity periodically throughout the presentation. You let the audience know that whoever wins each activity will receive a prize with a grand prize going to the person with the most wins. You observe that the audience becomes more excited as you get closer to each of the activity slides.

Scenario #2Biological Motivation

Carrot & Stick

Drive Reduction

Opponent Process

Motivational Conflicts

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus Theory

Facial Expressions

Cognitive Motivation

Competence

Joy of Processing

Hedgehog Theory

Arousal Theory

Cognitive Consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Reverse Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs

Persuasive Communication

Scarcity Principle

Reciprocity Norm

Social Influence

Persuasive Terms

Yale Attitude Change

Click here to see my analysis

Competence and the joy of processing, as well as hedgehog and arousal theories are active in this scenario because of the challenges of the activities. The tangible rewards use extrinsic motives and the carrot and stick approach. You use facial expressions to observe the excitement of the audience. There could also be a bit of hierarchal needs met through the competition and fun of the activity.

Scenario

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario

You’re presenting in favor of gun control and nearly every slide in your deck has an image of a gun pointing at the audience. You present the pros and cons of gun control ensuring your side has the most favorable results. You cite experts and present expert data. You show images of children who’ve been killed by accidental shootings. You also tell your audience that their support for gun control may elicit some disfavor in their community. You give your audience your personal phone number and then ask them to sign a petition in favor of gun control.

Scenario #3Biological Motivation

Carrot & Stick

Drive Reduction

Opponent Process

Motivational Conflicts

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus Theory

Facial Expressions

Cognitive Motivation

Competence

Joy of Processing

Hedgehog Theory

Arousal Theory

Cognitive Consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Reverse Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs

Persuasive Communication

Scarcity Principle

Reciprocity Norm

Social Influence

Persuasive Terms

Yale Attitude Change

Click here to see my analysisThis scenario uses the Yale attitude change approach by presenting both sides of an argument and showcasing your credibility. Motivational conflicts and cognitive dissonance are strongly in play here. You’re forcing your audience to look at uncomfortable images and then playing on their social values. This scenario arouses fear in the audience which is a very powerful motivator. Reciprocity norm and cognitive dissonance almost certainly ensures your audience will sign your petition. You also use a little reverse psychology by speaking about potential social repercussions.

Scenario

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario

You’re giving a 2 hour presentation on pollution and it’s scheduled for right after lunch. You use many unpleasant images of the effects of pollution especially the contamination of waterways. You include the sound of running water with these images. You make sure that pitchers of water and glasses are available at the back of the room. You let the audience know that during the final 15 minutes of your presentation, your assistant will be available for the audience to collect pledges for your cause and they can leave during that time if they want.

Scenario #4Biological Motivation

Carrot & Stick

Drive Reduction

Opponent Process

Motivational Conflicts

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus Theory

Facial Expressions

Cognitive Motivation

Competence

Joy of Processing

Hedgehog Theory

Arousal Theory

Cognitive Consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Reverse Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs

Persuasive Communication

Scarcity Principle

Reciprocity Norm

Social Influence

Persuasive Terms

Yale Attitude Change

Click here to see my analysisThis scenario uses all the elements of biological motivation. Your audience is very likely to feel the need to eliminate waste during this time frame and you are heightening their discomfort. While this may seem counter-productive, since this is also a time when many audiences experience sleepiness, a little discomfort will help ensure their attention. Additionally you’re arousing the emotion of disgust by following lunch with deliberately provocative images. Reciprocity norm is used by giving them the opportunity to leave early and compelling them to return the favor by pledging to your cause. The motivator is extrinsic with the reward being able to “get away.” This is a tricky scenario to pull off without having your audience resent you afterwards.

Scenario

Click the boxes to select the items that apply to the scenario

You’re giving a presentation about the benefits of yoga. You wear a set of hospital scrubs. Your presentation contains images of simple yoga poses. You also include statistical information about the benefits of yoga. At regular intervals you ask the audience to stand and perform simple yoga positions. After each of these stretching sessions you ask members of the audience to raise their hands if they think they will sign up for your yoga class. At the end of the presentation you give each member of the audience a knotted bracelet and give them an opportunity to register for one of your classes. You also give them the opportunity to purchase herbal supplements that you’ve brought with you.

Scenario #5Biological Motivation

Carrot & Stick

Drive Reduction

Opponent Process

Motivational Conflicts

Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Lazarus Theory

Facial Expressions

Cognitive Motivation

Competence

Joy of Processing

Hedgehog Theory

Arousal Theory

Cognitive Consistency

Cognitive Dissonance

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Reverse Psychology

Humanistic Psychology

Hierarchy of Needs

Persuasive Communication

Scarcity Principle

Reciprocity Norm

Social Influence

Persuasive Terms

Yale Attitude Change

Click here to see my analysisThis scenario uses the Yale attitude change approach by showcasing your credibility using both appearance and abilities. Competence and the joy of processing, as well as hedgehog and arousal theories are active in this scenario because of the activities. This scenario also relies on cognitive consistency and social influence. By involving the audience so physically, members will experience a significant amount of peer pressure to become a member of your classes. You’re using reciprocity norm and cognitive dissonance by gifting them with a bracelet. This scenario can be made even more effective by using the scarcity principle (I only have room for XX students in my class) and using persuasive terms such as healing, good, happy, discover, etc.

Scenario

References

Sources1. Russell A. Dewey, PhD (2008)

Psychology: An Introduction. Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

2. Dr. Christopher L. Heffner (2001), AllPsych Online, Psychology 101. Chapter 7 Motivation and Emotion

3. David Straker, M.Sc., P.G.C.E., Dip.M., FRSA (2010) ChangingMinds.org, Theories. Motivation, Persuasion, Emotion

4. Ken Shah, Prof. Param J. Shah (2009) LayNetworks.com. Motivation

5. Rev. Peter Coutts (2006), Leadership. A Framework for Understanding Motivation

6. William L. Benoit, Ph.D (2010), Communication Institute for Online Scholarship on Persuasion. The Yale Approach

7. Lee A. McGaan, Ph. D. (2010), Monmouth College Communication Studies. Introduction to Persuasion

As I’ve previously stated, the purpose of this tutorial is to provide presenters and slide designers with the informational tools to increase the effectiveness of their persuasive communications.

All findings and conclusions expressed within this tutorial are my own opinions. For more authoritative findings, please refer to my sources and draw your own conclusions.

Glenna ShawVisualology.net

January 2011

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