5 Things You Should Know About CLE Models and Strategies

5 THINGS YOU SHOULD

KNOW ABOUT…

Constructivist Pedagogical Models

and Instructional Strategies

GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY (IDT) PROGRAM

Introduction

This publication represents the work of graduate students in the Instructional Design and

Technology (IDT) program at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. The learning task

involved selecting a constructivist-based pedagogical model or instructional strategy and writing

a 2-page pedagogy brief that addresses the 5 Things You Need to Know About this pedagogy or

instructional strategy, namely:

(1) What is it?

(2) How does it work?

(3) Who is doing it?

(4) How effective is it?

(5) What are its implications for instructional design?

Twenty-three students participated in this activity in the fall semester of 2015 resulting in 16

briefs on pedagogical models and 7 briefs on instructional strategies. Selections included Cognitive

Apprenticeship, Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts, Communities of Practice, Goal Based Scenarios,

Problem Based Learning, Situated Learning, Virtual Learning Environments, Authentic Learning

Activities, Collaboration and Social Negotiation, Game-Based Learning, Role Playing, and

Scaffolding.

The writing of these briefs enabled students to examine constructivist-based pedagogical models

and instructional strategies, describe their theoretical principles and instructional characteristics and

discuss their implications for the design of problem solving learning environments (PSLEs) through

research based practice.

We hope you find these briefs informative and useful for the design of PSLEs.

Nada Dabbagh, PhD.

Professor & Director

Division of Learning Technologies

George Mason University

Fairfax, VA, USA

May 20, 2016

This publication may be cited as:

Dabbagh, N., David, L., Morgan, L., Campbell, A., Huber, B., Ahmed, N., … Butsay, A. (2016). 5

Things You Need to Know About Constructivist-Based Pedagogical Models and

Instructional Strategies. Available from: http://www.slideshare.net/NadaDabbagh/5-

things-you-should-know-about-cle-models-and-strategies

ix

http://www.slideshare.net/NadaDabbagh/5-things-you-should-know-about-cle-models-and-strategies

http://www.slideshare.net/NadaDabbagh/5-things-you-should-know-about-cle-models-and-strategies

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................... ix

Dr. Nada Dabbagh .................................................................................................................................. ix

PART 1: PEDAGOGICAL MODELS

COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP (CA)

Leslie David ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Laura Morgan.......................................................................................................................................... 8

COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY HYPERTEXTS (CFH)

Anne Campbell ....................................................................................................................................... 12

Brenda Huber ........................................................................................................................................ 16

COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE (COP) Nashrah Ahmed ..................................................................................................................................... 20

Chunhua Xiong ...................................................................................................................................... 24

GOAL BASED SCENARIOS (GBS)

Dan Jackson .......................................................................................................................................... 28

Katelyn Schreyer ....................................................................................................................................32

PROBLEM BASED LEARNING (PBL) Sakon Kieh ............................................................................................................................................. 36

Evgeniy Lekarev .................................................................................................................................... 40

Candido Mendes .................................................................................................................................... 44

Rebecca Szymanski ............................................................................................................................... 48

William Wick ..........................................................................................................................................52

SITUATED LEARNING (SL)

Shakila Anwari ...................................................................................................................................... 56

Katrina Rainer ....................................................................................................................................... 60

VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (VLES)

Tonya Hutson ......................................................................................................................................... 65

PART 2: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

AUTHENTIC LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Jennifer Kleiner .....................................................................................................................................69

COLLABORATION AND SOCIAL NEGOTIATION

Ellen Brown .......................................................................................................................................... 74

Jerry Prewitt ......................................................................................................................................... 77 GAME BASED LEARNING

Adam Strawn.......................................................................................................................................... 81

ROLE PLAYING

Dustin Norwood ..................................................................................................................................... 84

SCAFFOLDING

Doug Baldwin ........................................................................................................................................ 88 Anna Butsay ........................................................................................................................................... 93

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Cognitive Apprenticeship

What is it? Cognitive apprenticeship is taking the traditional

model of apprenticeship where the student was taught

by a master of the craft and, learned the skills in a

hands-on performance way.

Tacit knowledge was involved to teach the “tips and

tricks” of the trade. Cognitive apprenticeship involves

applying the process to cognitive skills. Learners are

invited into the actual knowledge domains and learn to

perform these practices as apprentices or interns. It

involves the showing and telling characteristics of

apprenticeship where the learners work with experts,

and where the showing is the modeling and the telling

is the explaining so the student learns where and when

to apply the knowledge. In this way students gradually

learn the skills and ultimately perform at master level.

By learning to perform these skills the apprentice is

also brought into the community ofpractice.

Additionally, apprentices learn when to apply the

skills in the correct situations during actual practice.

Cognitive apprenticeship involves the use of

technology to enable reflection, articulation and

exploration.

How does it work? Characteristics of cognitive apprenticeship are:

□ Modeling and explaining expertperformance

□ Extensive mentoring and coaching

□ Scaffolding

□ Focusing on performance mastery of the

specific skill domain

□ Working from simple to complexproblems

□ Collaborative learning within the

community of practitioners

□ Articulation and reflection on performance

□ Active participation in learning the skillset

□ Less supervision (fading) as the student

approaches mastery level

Modeling involves experts performing tasks so

students can watch and create a conceptual model of

the process.

Coaching involves the expert observing or monitoring

the student’s performance while they are performing


LESLIE DAVID

the skill and can provide feedback in the form of

scaffolding. Scaffolding provides any hints or

assistance to the learner. Articulation provides an

opportunity for the learner to articulate in words and

actions their knowledge; reflection provides the

opportunity to compare their efforts to other cognitive

apprentices or the experts in the field. Exploration

allows the learner to explore how to develop and carry

out solutions.

Who is doing it? Cognitive apprenticeship is a paradigm for teaching a

fairly complex task to students. It is not used to teach

any rote task. It has been used in the more traditional

sense by medical students, law students as interns,

and by instructional design students in a project

between a university and a corporate business.

Cognitive apprenticeship is being used by teachers to

teach reading, writing, and mathematical skills in

primary, secondary and college level education

courses. It is used in the science, technology,

mathematical and engineering fields at the post

graduate level. It is being used in corporate training in

order to situate problem solving in the context that the

learner will actively use in everyday life as a way of

avoiding the overly structured problems where the

learner is unable to make the jump from those types

of problems to actual problem solving. It is being

used by Dutch vocational schools. Dutch schools

range from short, very practical prevocational and

vocational education (comparable to American

vocational high schools to a 6-year academic program

that permits entrance to a university study. It is being

used in the Department of Transportation to teach

bridge inspection by utilizing a virtual bridge where

the students have to perform inspection procedures.

This was developed by a former graduate of this

program.

http://dotnet.dot.gov/news/stories/2015/10/2015- 10-

30-nhi- innovation.html.

How effective is it?

This section is totally subjective. How effective is

cognitive apprenticeship? I would say very effective

based on the increased use in education and training.

The use of web and online course materials allow

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http://dotnet.dot.gov/news/stories/2015/10/2015-

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF NOVEMBER 2015


cognitive apprenticeship to be used in more and more

fields and to minimize the time away from their

desks, more and more companies and universities are

going to online training as an alternative to traditional

training classes since they have the advantage of

being taken anywhere, anytime and linking the

learners to collaborate and share information through

forums, blogs, online chats using a variety of online

tools. The use of being able to observe a master user,

understand what and how they do, through

communication, create a scaffolding to understand

the process, to practice the skill and received coaching

and feedback from an expert, instructor, or

peers. In Collins, et. al., they referenced a pilot study

to test the efficacy of reciprocal reading. They tested

four groups and all showed very large percentages of

improvement with little decrease after a period of

time. The Dickey study investigated integrating a

cognitive apprenticeship model into an educational

technology Web- based course for pre-service

primary and secondary teacher education and

described varying degrees of success. The Maher, et.

al. study used the cognitive apprenticeship

framework to explain the doctoral student’s skill

development and found that it supported the

cognitive component but not the apprenticeship

component. The Dutch study explored the issues of

how do teachers value elements of the cognitive

apprenticeship model in designing and delivering

competence- based prevocational secondary education

and what individual action theories to

teachers have regarding competence-based

prevocational secondaryeducation.

What are the implications for instructional design?

The implications of cognitive apprenticeship for

instructional design are to provide learners with more

authentic situated problems where they will be able to

transfer skills to use what they have learned in a

variety of ways. It encompasses the use of dialogic

environments to exchange information. It allows

instructors to incorporate technology to provide online

course materials and as a means to integrate technology

into training. According to Michele

Dickey, cognitive apprenticeship methods may be well

suited for Web-based educational technology because

the students have to use educational technology to

learn about educational technology. The many online

tools that can be used such as blogs, wikis, chat rooms,

forums can create a community of practice that

apprentices can use to connect with experts and other

learners to not only share information but to also

reflect and articulate their experiences. It provides

audio and video tools to capture a master’s

performance that can be incorporated into the training

to provide more authentic experiences.

Scenario Cognitive Apprenticeship

Appreciative Inquiry Charlotte Barner

Until recently within the company, learners havebeen

members of work teams that have moved through a

traditional development process. In these teams, the

members' focus has been on identifying problems and

developing solutions, the leadership roles may or may

not have been shared, members' authority and

influence may have been limited, and members

expected team leaders and project managers to give

specific direction and make final decisions. Team

building training provided by the company taught

members what it meant to be a "good team player"

and itemized problems to expect as the team

developed from stage to stage. Similarly, team

leaders were taught how to direct members, monitor

and evaluate individual and team performance, and

deal with problem behaviors. The traditional

employee development curriculum does not reflect

the new management style needed to cope with

shifting priorities, matrixed responsibilities, and short

production deadlines. A more flexible employee

development methodology is being instituted,

"Appreciative Inquiry."

Current members of various corporate teams and are

being groomed to hold the position of team leader or

project manager in their respective departments as

part of an initiative by the company to redefine these

roles across the organization. They will be matched

with mentors who will work with them in online

environments and in face-to-face meetings to help

them construct expert level knowledge of the

Appreciative Inquiry process. Multimedia resources

will be available for the learners to use to observe

modeled examples of the approach. Learners will

keep a journal of their attempts to apply the model to

their work situations and will submit role-play videos

for mentor critique. They will also participate in

developmental team projects and engage in

discussion forums and conversations.

Learning Outcomes

Learners will internalize the skills of

experienced leaders and managers who can use



the Appreciative Inquiry process to build and support successful productive teams. They will learn to:

□ Understand and apply the Appreciative Inquiry's principles and processes as these relate to team development

□ Acquire the higher-level skills and abilities necessary for successful project management

□ Hone competencies necessary to balance and communicate priorities, and to make decisions

□ Enrich their communication, facilitation, and negotiation abilities, especially when dealing with diverse teams and divisive issues

□ Appreciate multiple points of

view and be able to synthesize differences into a coherent and cohesive action plan

□ Use Appreciative Inquiry to

develop and guide cohesive and collaborative teams capable of sustaining high levels of performance.



References

Chan, P., Miller, R., Monroe, E. (2009). Cognitive apprenticeship as an instructional strategy for solving

corporate training challenges. TechTrends, 53(6), 35-41. DOI 10.1007/s11528-009-0341-

Collins, A., Holum, A., Brown, J. S. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: making thinking visible. American Educator,

reprinted with permission. Retrieved from

http://elc.fhda.edu/transform/resources/collins_brown_holum_1991.pdf

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005) Online learning: Concepts, strategies, and application.

Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Dickey, M. (2007). Barriers and enablers in integrating cognitive apprenticeship methods in a Web-based educational

technology course for K 12 (primary and secondary) teacher education, ALT-J, Research in Learning

Technology, 15(2), 119 130.

Jonassen, D.H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning

environment. New York, NY: Routledge.

Maher, M. A., Gilmore, J. A., Feldon, D. F., Davis, T. E., (2013) Cognitive apprenticeship and the

supervision of science and engineering research assistants. Journal of Research Practice, 9(2)

Article M5. Retrieved from http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/354/311

Seezink, A., Poell, R.F., Kirschner, P.A. (2009). Teachers' individual action theories about competence-

based education: The value of the cognitive apprenticeship model. Journal of Vocational

Education and Training, 61(2), 203-215.



http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/354/311

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? In cognitive apprenticeships (CAs), novices learn

from experts in authentic learning environments. As

in traditional apprenticeships, experienced

practitioners model how to handle real, complex

tasks, then observe and coach the students as they

attempt the tasks on their own. Eventually, the

students become practitioners and mentors

themselves. In cognitive apprenticeships, there is an

additional focus on the internal mental processes

involved in learning. Experts attempt to make these

cognitive processes visible so apprentices can

understand and use them. For example, reading

teachers might think aloudas they read and analyze

a literary passage. CAs also focus on generalizable

skills and knowledge so that learning can be applied

in various contexts.

The cognitive apprenticeship instructional model is

rooted in the constructivist theories of situated

cognition and sociocultural learning. Situated

cognition emphasizes that learning take place in

authentic physical and social contexts, and

encourages learning to be embedded in activity.

This “situated” learning arguably leads to more

efficient and effective transfer (Brown, Collins, &

Duguid, 1989). Sociocultural learning theory

focuses on the importance of social interactions for

passing on cultural tools and constructing

knowledge. In Vygotsky's (1978) sociocultural

theory, cognitive change occurs in the zone of

proximal development when experts and novices

work together on a task. Also related to CAs is Lave

and Wenger’s (1991) concept of legitimate

peripheral participation in a community of practice.

They explain that newcomers who are not directly

part of an activity still learn from their position in

the outer limits of the community.

How does it work? The cognitive apprenticeship framework focuses on

four dimensions: content, method, sequencing, and

sociology (Collins, 2006). The first, content, refers

not only to the concepts, facts, and procedures that

an expert knows (domain knowledge), but how the


LAURA MORGAN

expert uses them to solve real-world problems

(strategic knowledge). In a CA, apprentices learn

both types of knowledge.

The second dimension, method, refers to the six

instructional strategies used in CAs: modeling,

coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection,

and exploration. Modeling requires the expert to

both perform the task and make explicit the

internal cognitive processes needed to complete

the task so that the novice can create a conceptual

model. The expert coaches the novice by observing

the novice perform the task and offering hints,

feedback, advice, and reminders. Scaffolding

refers more specifically to the supports that the

expert provides the novice, which are gradually

removed as the novice learns in a process called

fading. Articulation occurs when novices explain

and clarify their understanding, reasoning, and

problem-solving strategies in their own words.

This could occur through group discussion or

writing a blog post, for example. Reflection

encourages novices to revisit their performance

and compare it with expert performances, a set of

established criteria, their peers, and/or their own

mental models to identify where they could

improve. Finally, in exploration, the novices are

encouraged to create their own goals based on

problems of special interest to them.

The third dimension, sequencing, suggests that

learning activities progress with increasing

complexity, with increasing diversity, and from

global to local skills. Lastly according to Collins,

the dimension of sociology refers to the social

characteristics of CA learning environments. CAs

should be situated in an authentic context, involve

a community of practice, support intrinsic

motivation to perform, and foster cooperative

problem solving.

Who is doing it? The cognitive apprenticeship model has been used

in many instructional settings. Many internship

programs and academic research assistantships

employ CAs to onboard novice practitioners.

E D I T 7 3 0



Education professors at Mercer University

developed a CA model for supporting dissertation

writing with activities like think-aloud literature

analyses with students and scholars, writing tasks

with feedback sessions, and writing workshops that

incorporate scaffolding, coaching, and reflection

(Swanson, West, Carr, & Augustine, 2015). Nursing

education also uses the CA approach. The School of

Care Sciences at the University of Glamorgan used

CA to teach students clinical nursing skills by

recording video of expert practitioners performing

and explaining procedures, recording and coaching

students as they practiced, encouraging articulation

through think-aloud practice, and using videos and

discussions to reflect on performance (Woolley &

Jarvis, 2007).

Large companies also employ the cognitive

apprenticeship model. Google trains new software

engineers using a complex and robust program that

includes CA. Google provides new hires with a

mentor, encourages them to seek out other role

models to coach and advise them, scaffolds their

learning with check-lists, forums, and tutorials,

provides opportunities for feedback, articulation,

and reflection during a series of performance

management procedures, and provides multiple

opportunities for exploration, including Tech Talks

(community-organized sharing events that are

recorded and posted) and career development

projects. Google found that these practices reduced

isolation, enhanced collegiality, and increased

employee morale and job satisfaction (Johnson &

Senges, 2009).

How effective is it? Research generally supports the effectiveness of

cognitive apprenticeships in learning (Dennen &

Burner, 2008). Seel and Schenk (2003) used CA in

a multimedia environment and the results indicated

that effective design-type problem solving took

place, although scaffolding was difficult to employ

in the digital environment. Liu (2005) studied an

online CA for preservice teachers and found it to

lead to better performance and attitudes towards

instructional planning than classroom-based

learning. Hendricks (2001) compared CA to

traditional instruction and found that CA learners

performed better on post-tests, but this advantage

did not appear in a transfer activity two weeks later.

Teong (2003) found that young students using a

CA-based program called WordMath outperformed

the traditional learning group in word problem-

solving skills. Bonnett et al. (2006) compared 20

mentor-apprentice pairings of research scientists

and undergraduate biology students who used an

online CA program. The findings indicated that

mentoring relationships were more successful when

they focused on discipline-related topics instead of

relationship management issues. The example of

cognitive apprenticeship at Google is another

success story in learning and engagement in a

community of practice.

Most of the research on CAs focuses on higher

education, teacher training, and K-12 education,

leaving room for research in the government and

private sectors.


Cognitive apprenticeships can be considered for a

variety of learning problems. Some of the model’s

strong points are its emphasis on enculturation and

making explicit the knowledge of an experienced

practitioner, which are useful for novices achieving

performance mastery in a specific knowledge

domain (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). For

example, an instructional designer might

recommend a CA to a company with high turnover

rate or expected large growth in human resources in

order to maintain institutional memory. Companies

might also benefit from cognitive apprenticeships

for people transitioning to new roles or departments

within the organization where there is a distinct

work culture and set of expectations. CAs could

also help learners to solve decision-making

problems in complex environments. New teachers,

for example, might benefit from mentoring

relationships with more experienced teachers,

especially in terms of classroom management,

instructional planning, and communication with

parents. Additionally, cognitive apprenticeships

could fulfill learning needs for students that require

added enculturation into a community of practice.

For example, after-school mentoring programs for

youth that are struggling in school could provide



them with the types of metacognitive, motivational,

and self- regulating skills required to succeed in

class.

Various technologies could be used to facilitate a

cognitive apprenticeship. Experienced practitioners

could be either audio or video recorded as they

model a task so that novices can repeatedly go back

and refer to the expert demonstration. Wikis,

discussion boards, journals, blogs, and video blogs

could support collaborative learning and student

articulation and reflection.

Email, synchronous video, and instant messaging

could be leveraged for coaching. Links to related

resources could provide scaffolding and encourage

exploration.

Scenario

A large pharmaceutical company is transitioning

to a more flexible employee development model

called Appreciative Inquiry. Current members of

various corporate teams are being groomed to

hold the position of team leader or project

manager in their respective departments as part

of the initiative by the company to redefine these

roles across the organization. They will be

matched with mentors who will work with them

in online environments and in face-to-face

meetings to help them construct expert level

knowledge of the Appreciative Inquiry process.

Multimedia resources will be available for the

learners to use to observe modeled examples of

the approach. Learners will keep a journal of

their attempts to apply the model to their work

situations and will submit role-play videos for

mentor critique. They will also participate in

developmental team projects and engage in

discussion forums and conversations.

Learners will internalize the skills of

experienced leaders and managers who can use

the Appreciative Inquiry process to build and

support successful productive teams. They will

learn to:

Understand and apply the Appreciative

Inquiry's principles and processes as these

relate to team development

Acquire the higher-level skills and abilities

necessary for successful project management

Hone competencies necessary to balance and

communicate priorities, and to make

decisions

Enrich their communication, facilitation, and

negotiation abilities, especially when dealing

with diverse teams and divisive issues

Appreciate multiple points of view and be

able to synthesize differences into a coherent

and cohesive action plan

Use Appreciative Inquiry to develop and

guide cohesive and collaborative teams

capable of sustaining high levels of

performance. (Adapted from Dabbagh and Bannan-Ritland, 2005)



References

Bonnett, C., Wildemuth, B. M., & Sonnenwald, D. H. (2006). Interactivity between protégés and scientists

in an electronic mentoring program. Instructional Science, (34), 21-61.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational

Researcher, 18(1), 32- 42.

Collins, A. (2006). Cognitive apprenticeship. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the

learningsciences (pp. 47- 60). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies, and application.

Upper Saddle River N.J.: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Dennen, V. P., & Burner, K. J. (2008). The cognitive apprenticeship model in educational practice. In M. J.

Spector, M. D. Merrill, M. J. J. G. Van, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research on

educational communications and technology (pp. 425- 439). Abingdon, NY: Springer.

Hendricks, C. C. (2001). Teaching causal reasoning through cognitive apprenticeship: What are

results from situated learning? Journal of Educational Research, 94(5), 302-311.

Johnson, M. & Senges, M. (2009). Learning to be a programmer in a complex organization: A case study

on practice-based learning during the onboarding process at Google. Journal of Workplace

Learning, 22(3), 180-194.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York, NY:

Cambridge University Press.

Liu, T. C. (2005). Web-based cognitive apprenticeship model for improving pre-service teachers'

performances and attitudes towards instructional planning: Design and field experiment.

Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 136-149.

Seel, N. M., & Schenk, K. (2003). An evaluation report of multimedia environments as cognitive learning

tools. Evaluation and Program Planning, 26(2), 215-224.

Swanson, K. W., West, J., Carr, S., & Augustine, S. (2015). Supporting dissertation writing using a cognitive

apprenticeship model. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of research on scholarly publishing and

research methods (pp. 84-104). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.

Teong, S. K. (2003). The effect of metacognitive training on mathematical word-problem solving. Journal

of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(1), 46-55.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

What is it? Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext (CFH) is a

constructivist learning environment that “stimulates

creative and critical thinking by allowing users to look

at the same problem-situations from multiple

perspectives within a self-controlled, interactive

environment” according to Spiro, Lima, Koehler, who

helped to develop the model (2004, p. 375). The

model originated from Cognitive Flexibility Theory

(CFT), which was conceived by Rand Spiro, Coulson,

Feltovich and Anderson in 1988, basing it on the

following main tenets: 1) uses multiple case studies to

insure that a variety of possible situations are

presented, 2) focuses on cross-case differences in how

concepts and principles are applied, and 3) gives

consideration to multiple perspectives as an aid to

understand the connected nature of the domain

concepts and promoting flexible knowledge building.

Cognitive flexibility theory focuses on the nature of

learning in complex and ill-structured domains. Spiro

& Jehng (1990, p. 165) state: "By cognitive flexibility,

we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one's

knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to

radically changing situationaldemands...This is a

function of both the way knowledge is represented

(e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual

dimensions) and the processes that operate on those

mental representations (e.g., processes of schema

assembly rather than intact schemaretrieval).”

Hypertext is the medium for representing cognitive

flexibility theory. Due to the non-linear learning

approach in CFT, it most often uses multimedia and

interactive technology for learning. CFH is a unique

pedagogical model which is best suited for extremely

complex problems, such as dilemmas or highly

subjective, contextualized cases that do not have a

clear-cut or linear pathway to a solution, such as those

in psychology and medicine.

How does it work? CFHs are unique environments defined by the critical

need for representing multiple perspectives, the

emphasis on learner- directed study vs. instructor-led,

and the rich, interconnected, specific resources

present in the learning environment. It is most often


ANNE CAMPBELL

used as a supplemental tool as part of a course of

instruction. Jonassen, Ambruso & Olesen (1992) describe an

original application of cognitive flexibility theory to the

design of a hypertext program on transfusion medicine.

The program provides a number of different clinical

cases which students must diagnose and treat using

various sources of information available (including

advice from experts). The learning environment

presents multiple perspectives on the content, is

complex and ill- defined, and emphasizes the

construction of knowledge by the learner. A key

defining characteristic of CFH learning environments

is that the learning activities provide multiple

perspectives and representations of content as evident

in the example above.

Instruction by an instructor is limited, and the

construction of knowledge is on the learner to create.

“Hypertext” itself is a term coined by Theodor

Nelson to describe a user-directed approach to

organize and sequence text, versus the traditional

reading approach which is author-directed (Jonassen,

2011, p. 212). This exemplifies the ownership in

PSLEs, where “the onus is placedon the student to

create a model to capture in meaningful ways the

complexity presented in the learning task” (Dabbagh

& Dass, 2013, p. 162).

The instructor should also provide sources, or ensure

the multimedia environment has such sources, with a

high level of interconnection between the information

sources to enable the learner to construct broader

applications from the highly specific scenarios

presented. The materials and hypertext sources

should be very rich and detailed in nature and support

context-dependent case knowledge. In essence, the

hypertext environment needs to provide as much

information or access to information to allowthe

learner to consider as many vantage points to the

problem as possible.

Who is doing it? The original applications in CFHs have been in

reading comprehension, history, biology and

medicine. These are all very complex, contextually

dependent domains with interrelated tasks and

knowledge structures where CFT has proven to be an

effective learning theory for mastery of complex

knowledge transfer. Using hypertext as a medium for

E D I T 7 3 0



CFT learning has become more prevalent in education

to supplement coursework on highly complex subjects.

Today most social media environments are essentially

CFHs. Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, and

others are ill- structured, hypermedia environments

which offer multiple perspectives, timely and realistic

problem solving opportunities and links to

contextualized, specific cases. While non-

controversial topics are also discussed using social

media platforms, these hypertext environments have

become knownfor being the first place most people

turn to in order to learn more about the toughest issues

of today and offering their perspective on matters like

racial injustice, local and global politics, among many

others. Most interactive technologies are CFHs by design, such

as interactive smartboards which are increasingly

prevalent in classrooms all across the world. Interactive

whiteboards support non-linear learning in two main

ways, by accessing hypertext and multimedia external to

the classroom, and by allowing for non- linear movement

between the smartboard files related toquestions and

answers of students (Blau, 2011).

How effective is it? CFHs are best for raising awareness and understanding the complexities of specific societal issues. Learners

must take multiple perspectives on issues and construct

their own opinions and approaches to finding a solution to the problem. As Dabbagh and Dass found

in their 2013 study, “CFH case problems did not guide

learners toward a specific external product or concrete solution; rather, CFH case problems evoked internal or

tacit outcomes and changes in understandings that

cannot be readily detected or measured, such as raising awareness and developing opinions on a specific

societal issue, or understanding cultural differences and analyzing debates on alternative energy sources” (p.

172). The study also revealed that students spent on

average one and a half times longer in a heterarchical (network-like) case problem design, such as a CFH,

and this design also resulted in greater collaboration

between users (Dabbagh & Dass, p. 162). For 21st

century learning objectives, CFHs are ideal

environments for instilling critical thinking and

collaboration in learners.

In 2004, Godshalk, Harvey, and Moller studied the

effectiveness of a complex problem like sexual

harassment in the workplace. They found that learning

tasks that required learners to explore several opinions

and options were more effective in raising learners’

awareness and understanding of sexual harassment

than learning tasks that required learners to explore the

issue by taking a more defined and judgmental task”

(Dabbagh & Dass, 2013, p. 163).

In a 2013 study by Rinaldo, Laverie, Tapp, and

Humphrey, Twitter was used as the CFH to enhance

the classroom experience. The study found that

students who engaged morewith Twitter throughout

the semester realized a variety of benefits which

included positive shifts in their motivations towards

the course and task mastery, as well as shaping goals

related to future careers (Rinaldo et al, 2013).

What are the implications for instructional design? As CFT believes that the transfer of knowledge and

skills beyond their initial learning situation is very

important and that the nature effective learning in

complex problems are highly context- dependent, the

instructional designer must make it a priority to

include information from multiple perspectives and

use of many case studies that present diverse and

specific examples. CFT also proposes at its core that

learners must be able to construct their own

representations of information and construct

knowledge for themselves, and must be given

opportunities to do so. “CFT suggests that learning is

most successful when students are applying

knowledges to new situations independently”

(Rinaldo, Laverie, Tapp, Humphrey, 2013, p. 19).

Dabbagh and Dass found in their study of case

problems that problem topics that were controversial,

consequential, timely, realistic, and possessing

multiple perspectives were found most often in CFHs

(2013, p. 171). CFH case problem tasks were also

found to be less tangible or overt than problem tasks

conveyedin the case problems of the other models

examined in their study.

However, with the advent of hypermedia and the

internet, designers are finding that there is

unexplored territory with very few guidelines for the

practice of using CFHs in the classroom. They have

the technology and connections to the world at their

fingertips, but being able to decipher credible sources

and knowing how to link all of the information

together is lessclear. New interactive technologies are

expanding to personal devices connected by the

Internet of Things, and should be utilized to provide

greater detail and increase the number of perspectives



available to everyone to help tackle complex

problems. Scenario

Sophomores taking a political science class at

American University are failing to understand all

of the factors which affect an individual

government’s decision-making process in an

international crisis. The professor asks them to

formulate an argument, either for, against, or

undecided, on whether the United States should

accept more Syrianrefugees.

They will be given a constrained web

environment which contains hyperlinks to web

resources on the most currentstate of the crisis in

Syria, current U.S. government programs and

stances on refugees, statistics on immigrants to

the U.S. in the last ten years, popular opinions

from highly regarded media outlets, historical

cases of similar past crises with actions taken by

the U.S., cultural differences between our two

countries, surrounding countries’ Syrian refugee

numbers, immigration programs and resources,

and current statisticson

U.S. unemployment rates and resources. The

links and Twitter feed will show perspectives

from government officials, everyday citizens,

refugees and immigrants, and respected

journalists. A Twitter feed showing Syrian-

related threadswill also be embedded in the web

environment.

The students will discuss opinions on an online

discussion forum with each other, and they will

be able to talk with classmates and the professor

in class as well. For the final project, they will

present a two minute argument to the professor

and class of their recommendation and detail the

perspectives and information they used to make

their decision.



References

Antonenko, P. D., & Niederhauser, D. S. (2010). The influence of leads on cognitive load and learning in a hypertext

environment. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(2), 140-150.

Blau, I. (2011). [Chais] Teachers for "smart classrooms": The extent of implementation of an interactive whiteboard-

based professional development program on elementary teachers' instructional practices. Interdisciplinary

Journal of E- Learning and Learning Objects, 7(1), 275-289.

Dabbagh, N., & Dass, S. (2013). Case problems for problem-based pedagogical approaches: A comparative analysis.

Computers & Education, 64, 161-174.

Godshalk, V. M., Harvey, D. M., & Moller, L. (2004). The role of learning tasks on attitude change using cognitive

flexibility hypertext systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(4), 507-526.

Jonassen, D., Ambruso, D . & Olesen, J. (1992). Designing hypertext on transfusion medicine using cognitive

flexibility theory. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 1(3), 309-322.

Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning

environments. New York, NY: Routledge.

Rinaldo, S. B., Laverie, D. A., Tapp, S., & Humphrey Jr, W. F. (2013). The benefits of social media in marketing

education: Evaluating Twitter as a form of cognitive flexibility hypertext. Journal for Advancement of

Marketing Education, 21(1), 16.

Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and

hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T.M.

Duffy & D.H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 57-

75). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Retrieved from:http://postgutenberg.typepad.com/files/spiro92.pdf

http://postgutenberg.typepad.com/files/spiro92.pdf

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext/Hypermedia is a

web-based constructivist learning environment

proposed by Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, & Anderson in

1988. When researching biomedical cognition, Spiro

and his fellow researchers discovered that medical

school students frequently developed misconceptions

because of the various forms of oversimplification

used during their instruction. Spiro et al., proposed

Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) to facilitate

complex knowledgeacquisition in ill-structured

domains. Spiro & Jehng (1990) claimed hypertext to

be the most appropriate medium for representing

cognitive flexibility theory. CFT utilizes a real-world

case to convey an advanced concept. The complexity

of the concept is retained by integrating multiple

mental and pedagogical representations (Spiro et al.,

1988).

Learners are able to flexibly accessrelated information

through hypertexts. Instead of accepting an oversimplified,

“pre- packaged” schema, learners must construct their own

unique schemas. Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext/

Hypermedia (CFHs) were introduced in 1992 as a

problem-solving learning environment to support the


BRENDA HUBER

theory (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson,

1992).

With a CFH learning environment, students encounter

an authentic, complex case which features

multiple perspectives and no clear solution. The

juxtaposition of the perspectives creates themes for

the learner to explore. The case, and the

interconnected perspectives and themes are presented

in documents, graphics, videos, audio files,

photographs, etc., and are accessible through

hypertext links. Learners can enter the

multidimensional CFH at any point and “crisscross”

their way in a non-linear fashion through the

information, examining it repeatedly, in different

orders, for different purposes, and in different

contexts (Jonassen, Dyer, Peters, Robinson, Harvey,

King, & Loughner, 1996). To solve the problem,

students must evaluate and synthesize all the

perspectives. It requires cognitive flexibility for the

learners to accommodate multiple perspectives as

they construct their own interpretation of and solution

to the problems (Jonassen, 2011).

How does it work? Learners enter a CFH through a web page that

introduces a realistic case that lays the foundation for

the problem. The scenario is representative of

something a professional would encounter in the

workplace. It can be presented in any number of ways:

as a video, business report, meeting dialog, etc.

Learners sometimes find they are assigned a role to

play and their task is outlined. They are free to click

on any hyperlink to gather the background knowledge

they need by exploring the different perspectives of

the problem. Each perspective is a mini-case of the

overarching case, as each represents a unique reality of

the situation and contributes a different opinion,

possible solution, or facts that must be taken into

consideration. The perspectives are presented in the

form of primary case material: interviews, emails,

maps, letters, reports, etc. The more varied the mini-

cases are, the more likely it is for learners to be able to

transfer problem solving skills (Jonassen, et al., 1996).

Underlying themes are based on the points made by

different perspectives and learners must navigate

through competing viewpoints. Hot words and phrases

link the themes and perspectives, perspective to

Scenario What do the Statue of Liberty, Devil’s Tower, and Cesar

Chavez’s home all have in common? They are all United

States’ National Monuments. President Obama recently

named three other places of historical or geological

significance to the list of 117 monuments around the U.S.

There are several more under consideration. However, it is

not an easy task to declare a site a national monument. It

takes a Presidential proclamation or Congressional

legislation for it to happen. There are conflicting opinions

about the designation of land as a monument as it restricts

its use and future development. Cranberry Wilderness

stretches over 48,000 acres in West Virginia and is home to

both an important aquifer and valuable shale deposits.

Should this federally-protected wilderness area join the list

of National Monuments or should several proposed natural

gas pipelines be allowed to cross its boundaries? Through a

Cognitive Flexibility Hypermedia activity you can explore

the debate about the financial, cultural, and environment

impact on Cranberry Wilderness and decide whether you

support or are opposed the proposed Birthplace of Rivers

National Monument.

E D I T 7 3 0



perspective, themes to themes, and back to the main

case. The interconnectedness of the mini- case

elements allows learners to recognize patterns and

analogies that can be applied to new cases (Graddy,

Lee, & Timmons, 2001).

Users can navigate back and forth between the themes

and perspectives and review the scenario at any time.

Some CFHs further engage learners by providing

a place to take notes or providing access to search

engines so learners can locate additional

information and add their own hyperlinks to the

system.

The ultimate goal is for the learner to synthesize

the information in the case to make a decision

and be able to justify it. The final product may be

a report, a design document, an essay, or other

artifact that demonstrates both knowledge

acquisition and transfer of knowledge.

Who is doing it? The original research that spawned both

Cognitive Flexibility Theory and Cognitive

Flexibility Hypertext/Hypermedia was on medical

school students. The need to convey the complex

thinking of expert dental anesthesiologists to Korean

dental students was accomplished with a CFH that was

part of a cognitive apprenticeship program. It featured

mini-cases in the form of video segments that featured

expert performances and reasoning. Using the

knowledge gained by examining the different variables

in the mini-cases and the experts’ reasoning at critical

junctures, the dental students were expected to model

the reasoning process used by an expert and make

decisions as a dental surgeon to improve the outcome

in the test case (Choi, Hong, Park & Lee, 2013).

Several colleges and universities have adopted CFH

learning platforms to meet the advance learning needs

of their students. Jonassen (2011) developed several

CFH programs including one for a geography course

and another for a sociology course. The would-be

geographers were asked to take on the role of a

member of a consulting firm that had been asked to

design an alternate route for an intersection and later

to choice the location of a new community landfill.

The perspective included soil maps, traffic and

accident reports, and the opinions of citizens and

public leaders. The sociology students were asked to

solve three problems: 1) chose which renter to lease a

house to; 2) decide which person to hire as a sales

director; and 3) decide which person to admit to the

final freshman slot. The perspectives included

sociological theories, and applicants’ personal

viewpoints.

Toy & McShay (2003) created a CFH for pre-service

teachers so they could identify and explore the many

multicultural themes that are present in different

school settings and the ways, as teachers, they could

apply their new knowledge in other educational

contexts.

How effective is it? CFHs have been found to be effective in avoiding

the oversimplification in instruction andstudent

misconceptions that can develop when attempting to

present complex or ill-structured information in a

linear format (Spiro et al., 1988). Because of the

cognitive load they demand of learners, CFHs are not

recommended for introductory learning situations

(Spiro et al., 1992).

Compared to students who participated in learning

designs that emphasized mastery of declarative

knowledge, students who used CFHs were superior in

transferring their problem solving skills to new

situations. However, the control group performed better

on traditional recall assessments (Jacobson & Spiro,

1995). It should be noted that students do not always

use the learning tool as designed without appropriate

guidance (Choi, et al., 2013; and Strobel, Jonassen &

Ionas, 2008). Because the system is designed to be used

independently, some users may struggle to actively

construct knowledge and make meaning of the themes

and perspectives (Strobel, et al., 2008).

What are the implications for instructional design? CFHs are powerful instructional models for

understanding the complexities of ill-defined, real-

life problems and making choices for medical

diagnoses, public policy decisions, and legal and

ethical conundrums. They support the development

of flexible thinking that is required to analyze and

synthesize multiple perspectives. Because the goal is

for a learner to develop a unique schema through

which to approach new problems or situations, a CFH

would be inappropriate for group learning

environments. CFH were designed as a computer-

based learning model, and internet access and search

engines increase the accessibility of materials to add

details to perspectives. Word processing, computer



aided design software, and other programs can be

combined with a CFH to provide opportunities for

learners to demonstrate their flexible decision making

and its ramifications.



References

Choi, I., Hong, Y., Park, H., & Lee, Y. (2013). Case-based learning for anesthesiology: Enhancing dynamicdecision

making skills through cognitive apprenticeship and cognitive flexibility. In Luckin, R., Goodyear, P.,

Puntambeker, R., Grabowski, B., Understood, J., & Winters, N. (Eds.), Handbook of design in educational

technology. (pp. 230-240). New York, NY: Routledge. Retrieved from

https://www.safaribooksonline.com/library/view/handbook-of-design/9780415807340/xhtml/Ch023.xhtml

Graddy, D.B., Lee, J.T., & Timmons, J.D., (2001). Cognitive flexibility hypertext as a learning environment in

economics: A pedagogical note. Journal for Economic Educators 2001, 3(3). Electronic journal.

Retrieved from http://capone.mtsu.edu/jee/PDF_Files/TEAcogpaper.pdf

Jacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of

complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4):301-

333.

Jonassen, D.H., Strobel, J., & Ionas, I.G. (2008). The evolution of a collaborative authoring system for non-

linear hypertext: A design-based research study. Computers & Education: An International Journal,

5(1), 67-85.

Jonassen, D.H., Dyer, D., Peters, K., Robinson, T., Harvey, D., King, M., & Loughner, P. (1996). Cognitive

flexibility hypertexts on the web. In B. Khan (Ed.), Web-based instruction. (pp. 120-133). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Jonassen, D.H., (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning

environments. New York, NY: Routledge. Spiro, R.J., Cousin, R.I., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D.K.

(1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Tech Report

No. 441. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, Center for the Study of Reading.

Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED302821.pdf

Spiro, R.J. & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the non-linear and

multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. D. Nix & R. Spiro (eds.), Cognition, education, and

multimedia. (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and

hypertext: random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T.M.

Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. (pp. 57-

75). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Toy, S. & McShay, J. (2003). Using Cognitive Flexible hypertext environments to provide virtual field experiences

for preservice teachers in a multicultural course. In C. Crawford, N. Davis, J. Price, R. Weber & D. Willis

(Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference

2003. (pp. 2427-2430). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/18465

http://www.safaribooksonline.com/library/view/handbook-of-design/9780415807340/xhtml/Ch023.xhtml

http://capone.mtsu.edu/jee/PDF_Files/TEAcogpaper.pdf

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED302821.pdf

http://www.editlib.org/p/18465

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Communities of Practice

What is it?

A community of practice (COP) is an age-old learning

model, which was defined by Etienne Wenger and

Jean Lave in the early 1990s. They identified COPs as

a unique model in the process of studying

apprenticeships and knowledge sharing within a

research project run at the Institute for Research on

Learning (IRL) (Corso, n.d.). They discovered that

there need not be only two people involved in an

apprenticeship: a novice and an expert. Rather, a

community can serve as a “living curriculum” for

novices and experts at various levels (Wenger, 2006).

As it was researched further, Wenger and Lave

discovered this model virtually everywhere, often

without a formal apprenticeship structure and without

the dichotomy between novice and expert. They

identified three distinct characteristics of COPS: (1)

domain, (2) community, and (3) practice. A COP is

when practitioners of a certain domain come together

on a regular and on-going basis to discuss and share

strategies, resources, and best practices. As an off-

shoot of apprenticeships, this learning model is

authentic and largely dependent on participants that

direct and construct their own learning. It is for this

reason that it falls under constructivist epistemology,

although it also has implications for connectivism in

the modern age. In essence, Wenger and Lave did not

invent a new learningmodel. Rather, they discovered

and defined a naturally-occurring model used

everywhere.

How does it work?

COPs do not lend themselves to traditional roles of

“instructor” and “student.” Rather, all practitioners

come to the table with their unique levels of expertise.

There may be core members who actively and

frequently participate and peripheral members

who come and go or eventually become core

members. Although COPs can be “cultivated,” the

members are responsible for sustaining it over time

(Cambridge, Kaplan, & Suter, 2005). The community

ranges from various levels of “connectivity” and

“institutionalization” (Jonassen, 1999). For example,


NASHRAH AHMED

nurses that meet for lunch daily to discuss issues is an

example of low institutionalization and high

connectivity. On the other hand, a national association

of nurses that has annual gatherings is an example

of high institutionalization and low connectivity.

The types of domain, community, and

practice vary drastically. Learning happens through

social interaction and situated learning. It is authentic

in that practitioners drive the learning and discuss

topics that are most relevant to their practice and that

will enhance learning in that domain. Knowledge-

sharing is also an essential component. In fact,

“theory and evidence suggest that knowledge creation

and sharing are processes that involve often

spontaneouslyformed groups of individuals” (Corso,

n.d.).

Finally, COPs are considered living, breathing entities

that evolve over time. There are five loose

stages of evolution: potential, coalescing, maturing,

stewardship and transformation. In a nutshell, a

“loose network” of individuals eventually coalesce

into a community, mature over time, and become

stewards of knowledge in a particular area (Corso,

n.d.). Even with institutionalization and orchestration,

these stages can only come into existence through

social interactions that are authentic and spontaneous.

Who is doing it? Communities of practice have always existed and

continue to exist in every aspect of life, from local

knitting clubs to international associations of law or

medicine. Since its introduction by Lave and Wenger,

it has been used heavily in business and management

settings. Wenger argues that an organization’s most

valuable resource is people and “[e]ven when people

work for large organizations, they learn through their

participation in more specific communities made up

of people with whom they interact on a regular basis”

(1998).

COPs are also used in government, non-profit

organizations, and associations. One example is the

World Bank’s knowledge management strategy,

which incorporates an increasing number of COPs

(Wenger, 1999). COPs also occur informally within

organizations across functional units. For example,

the group of colleagues one interacts with on a

regular basis to share experiences and discuss ideas

E D I T 7 3 0



would be considered an informal COP. Although it

is not generally used in K-12 education for students,

teachers often work within COPs centered on

planning and instruction. In today’s increasingly

globalized world, online platforms have

further expanded COPs beyond geographic

boundaries. Many COPs contain both online and

face-to-face components. For example, teachers may

meet weekly in person and also use a Google Drive

to share resources discussed. There are professional

circles that mostly interact online but may have an

occasional live webinardiscussion.

How effective is it? The effectiveness and impact of communities of

practice is difficult to measure because its “primary

‘output’ – knowledge is intangible” (Wenger, 1999).

However, there are certain indicators of an effective

COP such as “knowledge assimilation, creation,

transfer, sharing, capitalization, and reuse” (Corso,

n.d.). A successful COP connects people, “capture[s]

and diffuses existing knowledge,” and generates new

knowledge (Cambridge, Kaplan, & Suter, 2005).

Snyder and Wenger outlines ways in which COPs

have added valueto various businesses and

organization such as the World Bank, Buckman Labs,

and Chrysler. In particular, they have helped

organizations develop hubs of strategic knowledge and

create new lines of business by fostering the exchange

of entrepreneurial insight. COPs have also streamlined

problem- solving processes by connecting

practitioners to experts in their fields. They have also

aided in the transfer of knowledge as participants

exchange context-specific bestpractices.

Although COPs have been around for centuries and

are increasingly gaining momentum in organizational

environments, there are a number of challenges or

unresolved issues that may impede the development of

effective COPs in today’s fast-paced globalized

workforce. Kerno identifies three limitations or

challenges: (1) time constraints that don’t allow

participants to “engage in prolonged, sustained

discourse,” (2) the hierarchical structure of

organizations that has the potential to be at odds with

the fluid, horizontal nature of COPs, and (3) the role of

varying cultures, some of which may emphasize

individualism overcommunity.


Communities of practice are a naturally occurring

model in organizations and in everyday life. They can

be a valuable structure for instruction and their

“organic, spontaneous, and informal nature” do not

warrant a great deal of “supervision and interference”

(Wenger, 1999). In this regard, it is ideal for cases

when resources to provide formal learning

interventions are limited and there is a great deal of

collective expertise on a topic. It is also ideal for

continuing education for adults because it is

embedded in a shared real-world practice or area of

expertise. COPs focus on the distribution, transfer,

and generation of knowledge through collaboration,

resource- sharing, and dialogue. However, “managers

cannot mandate communities or practice; they [must]

bring the right people together, provide an

infrastructure in which communities can thrive, and

measure the communities’ value in nontraditional

ways” (Wenger, 1999). Instructors or managers

ultimately serve as facilitators on an on-going basis

and they are cognizant of the phases or life cycle of

COPs: inquire,design, launch, grow, and sustain

(Cambridge, Kaplan, & Suter, 2005).

Technology has greatly enhanced the scope and

functionality of COPs. The “technical architecture” is

as important as the “social architecture.” In fact,

many COPs exist entirely online on social media

platforms, interactive websites, or discussion boards.

Online resource-sharing platforms such as Google

Drive are used to share resources and collectively

work on projects. Social media groups on Pinterest or

Facebook can also be used as resource-sharing and

collaboration tools respectively. For COPs that are

virtual or cannot meet face-to- face on a regular

basis, Skype, Adobe Connect, WebEx, or any similar

web conferencing tool provides a “sense of place”.



Scenario ABC is a two-year alternative teacher preparation

and leadership development program that places

highly qualified young college graduates in high-

needs schools. Teachers in their second year, 60 in

total, have traditionally received less support and

professional development than first-year teachers.

Unlike first-year teachers who are focused on

mastering the foundations of instruction and

pedagogy, second-year teachers are refining skills

and preparing to become future leaders in the

movement for education equity, whether they stay in

the classroom or pursue related careers. They have

expressed a need for more differentiated support

because the information that is useful for first-year

teachers does not feel relevant to them. Additionally,

they have different interests based on the career

trajectory they have decided to pursue after finishing

the program. For example, some are interested in

school leadership, some are interested in curriculum

design, and others are interested in leveraging

community relationships. ABC does not have the

resources and capacity to provide robust

differentiated support. However, they realized that

second-year teachers have benefited from interacting

with each other as well as the large alumni base in

the region. Many of the second- year and alumni

teachers are finding effective and innovative ways to

design instruction, connect with communities, and

take on leadership roles in their schools. ABC would

like to leverage this collective expertise to provide

more authentic and differentiated support to second-

year teachers.



References

Cambridge, D., Kaplan, S., & Suter, V. (2005). Community of practice design guide: A step-by-step guide

for designing & cultivating communities of practice in higher education (pdf file). Retrieved from

https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/nli0531.pdf.

Corso, M., & Giacobbe, A. (n.d.). Building communities of practice that work: A case study based research

[pdf file]. Retrieved from

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/conf/olkc/archive/oklc6/papers/corsogiacobbe.pdf

Jonassen, D., & Land, S. (2012). Preface. Theoretical foundations of learning environments (p. vii-x). New

York, NY: Routledge. Retrieved from

http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781136702600_sample_844583.pdf

Kerno, S.J. (2008). Limitations of communities of practice: A consideration of unresolved issues and

difficulties in the approach. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(1) 69-78. Retrieved

from http://www.knowledgemobilization.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/8.-Limitations-of-

Communities-of- Practice-.pdf.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system. The Systems Thinker, 9(5).

Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (1999). Communities of practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard Business

Review. Retrieved from

http://www.rareplanet.org/sites/rareplanet.org/files/Communities_of_Practice_The

_Organizational_Frontier%5B1%5D.pdf.

Wenger, E. (2006). Communities of practice: A brief introduction (pdf file). Retrieved from http://wenger-

trayner.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/10/06-Brief-introduction-to-communities-of-practice.pdf.

https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/nli0531.pdf

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/wbs/conf/olkc/archive/oklc6/papers/corsogiacobbe.pdf

http://samples.sainsburysebooks.co.uk/9781136702600_sample_844583.pdf

http://www.knowledgemobilization.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/8.-Limitations-of-



http://wenger-/

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it?

A community of practice is a group of people who

share a common concern, a set of problems, or interest

in a topicand who come together to fulfill both

individual and group goals (Wenger et al., 1998).

Participating in these ‘communities of practice’ is

essential to our learning (Wenger, 2000b).

Online collaborative forums offer just-in-time training

solutions and are often represented in the form of

discussion boards, collaborative software programs,

and centers for feedback. These forums have

consequentially evolved into CoPs wherein interested

stakeholders can interactively problem solve, create

new knowledge, or troubleshoot any issues facing

field practitioners (Wenger, 1998).

Wenger pointed out that CoPs can also be considered

as a part of broader conceptual framework for thinking

about learning in its social dimensions. CoPs are

theoretically grounded in social constructivism. While

as pedagogical model, it is consistent with the

epistemological assumptions of constructivism, which

stipulate that meaning is a function of how the

individual creates meaning from his or her experiences

and actions (Jonassen, 1991).

How does it work? CoPs often focus on sharing best practices and creating

new knowledge to advance a domain of professional

practice.

Arising out of learning, Wenger considered that CoPs

exhibits many characteristic of systems more

generally: emergent of learning, complex

relationships, self-organization, dynamic boundaries,

ongoing negotiation identity and culturalmeaning.

When designing itself, a community should look at the

following elements: events, leadership, connectivity,

membership, projects, and artifacts (Wenger,2000b).

Following are the instructional characteristics of CoPs:

□ Control of learning is distributed amongthe

participants in the community and is not in the

hands of a single instructor or expert.

□ Participants are committed to the generationand


CHUNHUA XIONG

sharing of new knowledge.

□ Learning activities are flexible andnegotiated.

□ The participants exhibit high levels of dialogue,

interaction, collaboration, and social negotiation.

□ A shared goal, problem, or project bindsthe

participants and provides a common focus and an

incentiveto work together as a community.

□ Diversity, multiple perspectives, and epistemic

issues are appreciated.

□ Traditional disciplinary and conceptual

boundariesare crossed.

□ Innovation and creativity are encouraged and

supported.

Who is doing it? Many studies show that CoPs have existed in a very

wide range of domains in academe, business,

government, education, health and the civil sector.

Following are a few examples of the applications of

CoPs: First of all, CoPs have been applied widely in

companies or organizations. For example, when a

company reorganized into a team-based structure,

employees with functional expertise may create

communities of practice as a way of maintaining

connections with peers. Elsewhere, people may form

communities in response to changes originating

outside or inside the organization, such as the rise of

e-commerce, computer makers offering consulting

service, etc.

Moreover, in order to develop a knowledge sharing

culture, a case study explores how NASA's Office of

theChief Engineer established communities of

practice on the NASA Engineering Network, from

establishing simple websites that compiled discipline-

specific resources to fostering a knowledge-sharing

environment through collaborative and interactive

technologies (Topousis et al., 2012).

Last but not least, Polin’s (2008) study illustrates

ways in which social computing applications enable

the use of a CoP model in graduate professional

education, which offers a perspective on graduate

professional education as an activity arising in a

community of professionalpractice.

E D I T 7 3 0



How effective is it? Combined with Wenger’s view of the application of

the CoPs, the effectiveness can be discussed from

following aspects:

To begin with, in organization in the private and

public sectors, CoPs have provided a vehicle for peer-

to-peer learning among practitioners. CoPs have been

seen toimprove organizational performance at

companies as diverse as international bank, a major

car manufacturer, and the U.S. government agency.

(Wenger & Synder, 2000b)

Secondly, in education, CoPs are increasingly used for

professional development, but they also offer a fresh

perspective on learning and education more generally.

New thinking about the role of educational institutions

anddesign of learning opportunities is arising by

applying the CoPs in educational field. Finally, in

international development, cultivating horizontal

communities of practice among local practitioners

presents an attractive alternative to the traditional view

of vertical transmission of knowledge (Wenger, 2009).

Actually, NASA’s CoPs showed that the collaborative

exchanges in CoPs “have already offered significant

discoveries in how to reduce risk in space exploration

and optimize engineering designs.” (Topousis et al.,

2012).


Today, organizations, workgroups, teams, and

individuals must work together in new ways. Inter-

organizational collaboration is increasingly important

(Cambridge et al., 2005). Studies indicated that CoPs

can be cultivated to address the needs of sharing

information, exchange of opinions, and peer-to-peer

learning in a variety of contexts through appropriate

technologies, in particular the rise of social media. By

applying CoPs as a pedagogical approach, members of

community attempt to unveil tacit skills and abilities

that often only evolve from experience (Hildreth et al.,

2000; Wenger, 2000a; Wenger, 2000b).

In order to develop quality CoPs, Harvey et al

mention that the organizational model, culture, and

context must be considered (Harvey et al., 2012).

While successfully facilitating a CoP involves

understanding its lifecycle phase (inquire, design,

prototype, launch, grow, and sustain) and ensuring

that the expectations, plans, communications,

collaborative activities, technologies, and measures

ofsuccess map to the current phase of the

community’s.

The technical architecture of the community supports

it in providing a platform for communication and

collaboration, while the social architecture enlivens

it. Therefore, the roles, processes, and approaches

that engage people—whether face- to-face or

online—are essential in relationship building,

collaborative learning, knowledge sharing, and action

(Cambridge et al., 2005).

Scenario

“Engaging in Cultural Inquiry” (by Kristin

Percy-Calaff)

Introduction A national professional teaching society estimates

that more than half the public schools in America

are wrestling with cultural diversity issues and

learning needs stemming from differences in

students’ educational and ethnicbackgrounds. Some

diversity issues come from the fact that the families

of many school-aged children emigrated from

foreign countries and do not speak English. Other

issues arise because American families are more

mobile than they were 25 years ago. Many students

spend only 1 or 2 years in the same school system.

When they arrive at a new school, they

have differing academic backgrounds and

expectations.

Teachers need to be able to analyze student

problemsand identify whether they are

developmental issues, cultural differences, or

learning disabilities. Perhaps the “difficulties” are

the result of the teacher’s overly narrow

expectations. Educators must be able to locate

resources and use these resources to flexibly solve

problems that interfere with their students’ learning.

This year’s public school educational conference will address this issue; the theme is “Cultural Inquiry and Effective Education (CIEE).”

Continued on next page…



The goal of the CIEE conference is “to support

teachers working in culturally diverse classrooms so

that they might provide effective educational

opportunities for all students.” The conference will

be divided into tracks geared to four audiences:

teachers in K–7, teachers in 8–12, school

administrators, and technology support

professionals. Presenters and participants will be

encouraged to collaborate and share their

experiences, and to recommend resources and

methods for supporting culturally diverse

classrooms. As the conference organizer, you want

this event to lay the groundwork for a teacher

support base for cultural issues.

Learning Outcomes The task force will be charged with designing an

environment that will enable teachers to do the

following:

Identify appropriate cultural

approaches,knowledge domains, and

intervention strategies used in

different educational situations

Develop a research plan and identify

relevant resources, including other

teachers, to solve a culturally based

educational problem

Decide how and when resources should

be used to support decisions, methods,

and information given in a situation

Envision alternative ways of

viewing educational processes Provide experiential guidance to instructors

who are unfamiliar with the cultures of the students they are encountering

Identify strategies to improve educational

practice

Reflect on strategy outcomes and

refine their solutions for future

practice.



References

Cambridge. D., Kaplan. S., & Suter, V. (2005). Community of practice design guide: A step-by-step guide for

designing &cultivating communities of practice in higher education. Retrieved from EDUCAUSE

website: http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/NLI0531.pdf

Harvey, J. F., Cohendet, P., Simon, L., & Dubois, L. E. (2013). Another cog in the machine: Designing

communities of practice in professional bureaucracies. European Management Journal, 31, 27–40.

Hildreth, P., Kimble, C., & Wright, P. (2000). Communities of practice in the distributed international environment.

Journal of Knowledge Management, 4(1), 27– 38.

Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational

Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5–14.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge England:


Polin, G. L. (2008) Graduate professional education from a community of practice perspective: The role of

social and technical networking. In C. Blackmore (Eds.), Social learning systems and communities

of practice (pp. 163-177). London: Springer.

Topousis, D., Dennehy, C.J., & Lebsock, K.L. (2012). NASA’s experiences enabling the capture and

sharing of technical expertise through communities of practice. Acta Astronautica, 81(2), 499–

511.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, London: Cambridge

University Press.

Wenger, E. C., & Snyder, W. M. (2000a). Communities of Practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard Business

Review, 78(1), 139-145.

Wenger, E. (2000b). Communities of practice and social learning systems. Organization, 7(2), 225 –246.

http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/NLI0531.pdf

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Goal-Based Scenarios

What is it?

Goal-based scenarios (GBS) are, first and foremost, a

pedagogical model grounded in constructivism.

According to Anne K. Bednar, constructivism is a

theory that associates learning with creating meaning

from experience (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Building

on this concept, GBS provides learners with

meaningful and authentic goals in the context of a

real- world scenario. Originally proposed by Roger

Schank, GBS accounts for the idea that too often,

natural learning goals are overshadowed by artificial

ones (Schank, 1992). They create a more authentic

learning experience by providing learners with specific

goals to work towards in solving aproblem.

Additionally, goal-based scenarios allow for learning

to occur throughout the scenario on a variety of

different subjects; not just directly related to the

specific goal. Learners are forced to build a skillset as

they progress through the scenario, and make choices

utilizing their newly acquired skills. As Schank notes,

GBS is truly learning by doing and learning in real

life, which tends to be a very effective way that people

learn naturally. This also allows learners to take control

of their own learning experience, since they are

the ones that need to pursue the achievement of the

goals (Abelson et al., 1994).

How does it work? Goal-based scenarios typically have seven very well

structured and well defined instructional

characteristics. First are learning goals, which defines

what students should learn from the GBS. Often,

learning goals can be broken up into both process and

content knowledge. Process knowledge describes

how to practice skills that contribute to learner

success, and content knowledge describes the

information that learner success requires, respectively.

The second instructional characteristic

is a mission, which is the actual goal that will

motivate the learner to solve the problem. Ideally, the

mission is something relatable to the learner, but also

realistic. Third is a cover story, which provides the

background and context for the scenario thatcreates

the need for the mission to be successfully


DAN JACKSON

accomplished. This is a critical step, since a good

cover story can be key in allowing the learner to

become immersed in thescenario.

The fourth instructional characteristic of a GBS is a

role, which defines the character the learner is

participating as during the scenario. Fifth is the

scenario operations, which lay out all of the tasks the

learner needs to complete in working towards the

mission goal. The sixth characteristic is resources,

which provide learners with additional information

they needto accomplish their mission goal. Lastly, the

seventh instructional characteristic is feedback, which

is given to the learner in anyof three following ways as

they complete the scenario. First, they can receive

feedback as a direct consequence of an action they’ve

taken or a decision they’ve made. Second, a coach or

instructor can deliver feedback to the learner. Finally,

feedback can be delivered in the form of relevant

stories with similar experiences and learning outcomes

(Reigeluth, 1999).

Within a GBS, the roles of the instructor and the

learner are well defined. The primary job of the

instructor is to design the scenario, and then to

explain it to the learners. One critical aspect for the

instructor when explaining the scenario is that in

order for the learner to be successful, they need to

make sure to motivate them. The more engaged the

learner is, the more successful they are at achieving

the goal. The role of the learner, on the other hand, is

to drive their own learning by doing. The learner

needs to explore options and test solutions, acquiring

new skills along the way to achieving thegoal.

Who is doing it?

Goal-based scenarios can be used in a multitude of

educational settings, including both academia and

business. One such example from academia describes

Bill Purves, a Professor of Biology at Harvey Mudd

College. Roger Schank encouraged Professor Purves

to take a look at the skills a professional biologist

needed to be successful, and then to create a GBS

supporting the cultivation of those skills. Together,

they created a scenario in which the student needed to

develop a way to make bacteria produce insulin which

would be then administered to a diabetic patient

E D I T 7 3 0



(Schank, 1992).

Another example of a GBS is from the National

Museum of Wildlife Art. In this example, learners

write original stories using museum art as illustrations

and inspiration for their stories. While they use these

pieces as part of the story, they are responsible for

creating their own interpretations. They are also given

a specific role from which the narrative is written,

which allows them to learn about the artwork from the

context of that particular role. The goal of this scenario

is to learn more about the artwork and to understand it

in context (Schaller et al., 2001).

While these examples are vastly different, such is the

scope of use cases for goal-based scenarios.

How effective is it? Just like any training course, the effectiveness ofgoal-

based scenarios often depends on the situation in

which it is being used. However, when correctly

employed, educational technology studies have shown

that learning is often considerably enhanced in such

real-worldenvironments.

Additionally, this research supports the concept thatrole-

playing in such real-world environments encourages

learners to practice and internalize skills that they can

eventually transfer into everyday situations (Kaufman &

Sauvé, 2010).

It is important to note that while the research supports

GBS as a successful and effective training solution,

there are a number of factors that can influence its

effectiveness. First and foremost, as mentioned

previously, it is critical for the instructor to not only

explain the scenario, but also motivate and engage the

learners. If the learners are not fully immersed in the

scenario and in achieving the goal, the GBS’s

effectiveness diminishes considerably. Another factor

that can influence effectiveness is the scenario itself. If

the scenario is not grounded in reality and authentic

context, it will most likely not resonate with learners.

Thus, learners will not be engaged or motivated to

achieve the goal. One additional factor that can

possibly influence effectiveness is the level of

involvement from the instructor.

The learning in a goal-based scenario needs to be

primarily learner-driven. If the instructor is too

heavily involved in hand- holding the learners, it is

easy for the learners to become disengaged and

unmotivated. The intrinsic motivation of the learners

driving themselves towards a solution cannot be

forgotten, and this can significantly impact the

effectiveness of a goal-based scenario.


With the advancements in technology over the last

several decades, the field of instructional design has

benefited greatly. While traditional brick and mortar

classroom settings can never be eliminated,

technology has allowed instructional designers to

create unbelievably immersive learning solutions

across every imaginable industry. Goal-based

scenarios lend themselves perfectly to a technology-

supported solution, primarily because the learning is

almost entirely learner-driven. Technology can allow

the learner to take on multiple roles and make

decisions easily and seamlessly, without being

confined to a classroom. This encourages learning to

take place anywhere and everywhere, which opens up

a whole new world of possibilities for real-world and

authentic learning.

Scenario

Many organizations are currently very concerned

about cyber security, and multi-family housing

real estate investment trusts (REITs) are no

different. Hackers know that REITs have a digital

treasure trove of resident and employee

information (e.g. credit card numbers, social

security numbers, tax information, etc.) stored on

their networks. In response to the imminent data

threat, the IT department in one particular national

REIT sent out a number of fake phishing emails

trying to gauge the organization’s susceptibility to

a cyber-attack, and the results were appalling.

Employees willingly shared their intimate

personal information (e.g. social security

numbers, computer passwords, etc.); information

which a hacker could use to cause major damage

both for the individual and for the organization.

As a result, it became evident that a significant

training effort was necessary. A goal-based

scenario computer based training course was




chosen as the most effective way to reach the

employees and emphasize the importance of

data security.

The scenario requires employees to perform a

number of tasks and make choices based on

problems that arise in order to protect the

organization from a series of damaging cyber-

attacks. These problems range anywhere from

locking their computer when they leave to go

to lunch, to adjusting privacy settings on their

social media pages. The scenario is designed

for employees to complete it individually,

since it is each employee’s responsibility to

keep themselves and organization secure. As

they progress through the scenario, they

receive real-time feedback on their choices.

They are not able to move forward in the

scenario without completing a task and

proving that they understand the concept being

discussed at that point in time.

By the time the employee completes the

course, they should be well versed in the

different methods hackers can use to access

information, as well as how to prevent such

attacks. They are of course assessed along the

way during the scenario, but there is an

additional layer of assessment following

completion of the course. The IT department

again sends out fake phishing emails to the

organization at random intervals in the months

following course completion. This gives them

the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of the

cyber security goal-based scenario in teaching

employees to maintain a high level ofdata

security, even after training has concluded.



References

Abelson, R. P., Schank, R. C., & Langer, E. J. (1994). Beliefs, reasoning, and decision making: Psycho-logic in honor of Bob

Abelson. Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum.

Ertmer, P., & Newby, T. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an

instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1(2), 43-71. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002piq.21143

Kaufman, D., & Sauvé, L. (2010). Educational gameplay and simulation environments: Case studies and lessons learned.

Hershey, PA: Information ScienceReference.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1983). Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Schaller, D. T., Allison-Bunnell, S., & Nagel, S. (2001). Developing goal-based scenarios for web education. Retrieved from

http://www.eduweb.com/goalbasedscenarios.html

Schank, R. C. (1992). Goal-based scenarios. Technical Report #36. Evanston, IL: The Institute for the Learning

Sciences, Northwestern University. Retrieved fromhttp://cogprints.org/624/1/V11ANSEK.html



http://www.eduweb.com/goalbasedscenarios.html

http://cogprints.org/624/1/V11ANSEK.html

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Roger Schank (1994) observed that young children are

natural learners, but all their learning is associated with

a goal. Children want to go places, therefore they learn

to walk, and they tolerate much failure in the process.

They want to communicate, so they learn to talk, and

they keep refining this skill over many years. This kind

of personal goal has much more motivating power than

learning a seemingly random assortment of skills to

earn a grade. Shank proposed a pedagogical model

where scenarios are constructed around meaningful,

authentic goals, and these goals would require the

target skills to be learned as a necessary step. He called

this model Goal-Based Scenarios. These scenarios

feature learners as active participants in constructing

both their knowledge and the methods by which the

goal is achieved. Schank proposes that Goal-Based

Scenarios is a pedagogy that can “provide motivation,

a sense of accomplishment, a support system, and a

focus on skills rather than facts.”

This constructivist model builds on the concept of

Situated Learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991) in that

learning objectives are situated in the context in which

they are used in the “real world.” However, Goal-Based

Scenarios is distinct from situated learning in the

presence of the titular goal; there is an overt objective

that is driving the learning, which may be absent in a

situated learning environment.

How does it work?

A Goal-Based Scenario consists of four components:

Mission, Mission Focus, Cover Story, and Scenario

Operations (Schank et al, 1994). The mission is the

goal the learner is trying to accomplish, and it should

be broad enough to entice a number of different

activities. Most critically, it should be relevant and

meaningful to the learner; no one mission will be

meaningful to everyone. The mission focus describes

the kinds of activities that the learner will need to

undertake in order to complete the goal. The four kinds

of mission focus are explanation, control, design, and


KATELYN SCHREYER

discovery. The cover story is the scenario that is built

up around the goal, to explain why the learner is

pursuing the goal and define its context. For example,

the cover story may include the background of a town

with a polluted water supply, and it will also establish

the learner as taking on the role of an expert consultant

to solve the problem. The scenario operations are the

actual activities that the students will undertake in

the process of achieving the goal.

In a Goal-Based Scenario, the instructor designs and

explains the goal, with special care to create a goal

that learners will engage with and become motivated

to solve. A Goal-Based Scenario should have many

viable solutions, which the learners will spend time

exploring, and the skills that the instructor intends to

teach should be aligned to the goal such that students

will simply have to learn that skill, among others, on

the way to completing the goal. The instructor must be

sensitive to the interests of the learners, and design

each Goal- Based Scenario to appeal to them, with the

knowledge that no one scenario will be of interest to

all students.

Who is doing it?

Goal-Based Scenarios can be used effectively in a

wide variety of formal and informal educational

settings and all educational levels, ranging from K-12

to workplace training and professional development to

informal learning environments such as museums.

With some imagination in designing the scenario, the

model can be used to almost any skill.

To provide some examples, the model has been used

to teach financial accounting practices to MBA

students by placing them in the role of a bank manager

evaluating lending deals (Foster, 1995), and to teach

about Sickle Cell Anemia and about healthcare

counseling to museum visitors of all ages (Bell, et al.,

1994). It has been used to teach a government-

mandated ethics program to high school students in

Japan (Umeda, et al., 2012), and to teach

undergraduates in a computer science program how to

select computer equipment and components based on

user requirements (Beriswell, 2014). It has also been

E D I T 7 3 0



used in a computer-based environment to teach about

the Central Limit Theorem to students in a statistics

class (Hsu & Moore, 2010).


Goal-Based Scenario are, when correctly implemented,

a highly engaging and effective instructional approach.

Zumbach & Reimann (1999) conducted a study

comparing a computer based GBS, a computer-based

rote drill program, and a hypertext environment

covering the same material. Students grasp of basic

facts was best in the drill program, but Schank (1994)

argues that memorization of facts isn’t as significant a

learning outcome as mastery of skills. Along those

lines, this study showed that participants in the Goal-

Based Scenario group had better structural knowledge

of the target activity than the other two groups, and the

Goal-Based Scenario group showed better

argumentation in their discussion of the activity later.

Most interestingly, both the drill and hypertext group

showed a distinct drop in intrinsic motivation that did

not manifest in the Goal-Based Scenario group.

Furthermore, Goal-Based Scenarios have been shown

to be effective for all students, regardless of ethnicity,

gender, or prior coursework (Schoenfeld-Tacher, Jones,

& Persichitte, 2001), so this use pedagogical model is

an opportunity to minimize the achievement gap.

Research has also shown when GBS’s are designed

with Cognitive Load Theory in mind, motivational and

academic outcomes are further improved (Kilic &

Yildirim, 2012).


Goal-Based Scenarios are ideal for teaching skills, and

are less suited to teaching a corpus of facts for

memorization. Furthermore, because the model centers

on learning by doing, the target skill must be one that

students can reasonably do, or that can be adequately

reproduced in a simulator. For example, Goal-Based

Scenarios are a poor choice for the skill of learning how

to operate a nuclear reactor, as the cost of failure is

extraordinary. Likewise, the skills of avionics and

navigation for an aircraft would only fit into the Goal-

Based Scenarios model with the extensive use of

simulators prior to or entirely in place of flying an

actual aircraft.

Multiple learning technologies can benefit from this

model. Most notably, almost all video games are goal-

based scenarios, although they are not all educational in

nature. This indicates that to develop an effective

educational video game, the designer should keep the

design criteria of Goal-Based Scenarios in mind.

Simulations can also benefit from incorporating Goal-

Based Scenarios to ensure that the learners can

contextualize the skills the simulation is designed to

teach.

Goal-Based Scenarios are particularly helpful to teach

skills that learners would have trouble contextualizing

or appreciating the utility of if the skills were learned

in a rote fashion. The motivating aspect of these

scenarios can be useful for teaching skills that are in

and of themselves “boring,” especially when removed

from an authentic context, such as arithmetic.

Scenario

Ms. Jones is a computer science teacher at a high

school, and she is teaching a unit on internet skills.

She wishes to her students to learn how to use

HTML, CSS, FTP, and how these basic building

blocks of the internet work. Notably, her focus is

that students learn to use these tools in an authentic

and meaningful way, not that they memorize facts

about them.

She designs a Goal Based Scenario where the

students will act as designers and producers of their

own websites. The mission is for the student to

create a website on a topic of their choice. The

mission focus is on the design of a website. The

cover story that she constructs for her students is

that they are website developers creating a site to

disseminate information about a given topic, with

example topics given as a popular video game,

book, or TV show. The scenario operations inherent

in this scenario are: encoding desired content in

HTML, applying formatting controls in CSS, using

FTP and provided website to publish the site, and

writing and compiling the website content.




Ms. Jones prepares a resource library including

HTML and CSS reference materials, completed

exemplars with visible source code, and a method

by which an expert may be consulted.

Additionally, she instructs her students to begin by

sketching their site on paper before they begin

c o d i n g .

As each student begins building their site, they will

have to identify what kind of content they want to

include and how they want to display it. As they

make these design choices, the students will have

to identify similar features in the exemplar sites

and reverse engineer how these features were

created. The students will struggle with the HTML

and CSS to get the site to appear the way they

want it to. They will have to upload their site to

provided web hosting via FTP to see if it works

and renders correctly in a variety of browsers.

Because the end goal is one that students are

passionate about, they are more likely to continue

working after setbacks and failures.

The students will also create content for the

website that contains the information about their

topic that they wish to convey. The content may

undergo several iterations as students decide to

break up content onto several pages or consolidate

it into fewer pages. As content changes, the

students must also iterate on the design of the

website, re- visiting the HTML to reflect the

structural changes.

Students work on the website during their hour-

long class period and as homework during the

week-long unit. With Ms. Jones’ facilitation,

students may collaborate and share what they have

learned about how to achieve certain effects or

solutions to common problems.

When the projects are finished, they are published

to the internet where anyone can visit them. Some

students may continue to add new content to the

website after the unit ends.



References

Bell, B., Bareiss, R., & Beckwith, R. (1994). Sickle cell counselor: A prototype goal-based scenario for

instruction in a museum environment. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 347-386.

Beriswill, J. E. (2014). Design Process of a Goal-Based Scenario on Computing Fundamentals.

TechTrends, 59(6), 15-20.

Foster, D. A. (1995). FRA: Teaching financial accounting with a goal-based scenario. International Journal

of Intelligent Systems in Accounting Finance & Management, 4(3). 173-189.

Hsu, C. Y., & Moore, D. R. (2010). An example implementation of Schank’s goal-basedscenarios.

TechTrends, 54(1), 58-61.

Kilic, E. & Yildirim, Z. (2012). Cognitive load and goal based scenario centered 3D multimedia learning

environment: Learners' motivation, satisfaction and mental effort. Journal of Educational Computing

Research, 47(3), 329-349.

Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press.

Schank, R. (1994). Goal-based scenarios: A radical look at education. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,

3(4), 429-453.

Schank, R., Fano, A., Bell, B. & Jona, M. (1994). Design of goal-based scenarios. The Journal of the

Learning Sciences, 3(4), 305-345.

Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., Jones, L. L., & Persichitte, K. A. (2001). Differential effects of a multimedia goal-based

scenario to teach introductory biochemistry--Who benefits most?. Journal of Science Education and

Technology, 10(4), 305–317.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Problem Based Learning

What is it? Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered

pedagogical model where students learn content

through the experience of solving authentic, real world

problems. First developed in medical education in the

1950s, problem-based learning was conceived and

implemented in response to the unsatisfactory clinical

performance of students’ biomedical knowledge in

medical school. Medical schools traditionally taught

doctors by requiring them to memorize large amounts

of information and then apply the information in

clinical situations. This approach did not fully prepare

doctors for the real world where some patients might

show multiple symptoms of a type of sickness while

with others might not be able to identify their

symptoms at all. Although students memorized basic

medical information for tests in their courses, they did

not know how to apply the information to real-life

situations and forgot it quickly. Howard Barrows, a

physician and medical educator at McMaster

University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, wanted to

develop methods of instructing physicians that

fostered their own capabilities for reflection outside of

school in ordinary life. Barrows designed a series of

problems that went beyond conventional case studies.

He didn't give students all the information but required

them to research a situation, develop appropriate

questions, and produce their own plan to solve the

problem.

Rooted in Dewey’s theory of learning by doing and

experiencing, Barrows defined this new method,

problem- based learning, as “the learning that results

from the process of working toward the understanding

or resolution ofa problem” (Delisle, 1997). Problem-

based learning is active learning which enables

students to acquire knowledge while trying to solve

real world problems. The problem based learning

model of Barrows has been adopted in an increasing

number of other areas ofeducation.


SAKON KIEH

How does it work? Problem-based learning reverses the traditional

approach to teaching and learning. It allows students

to work collaboratively in order to investigate and

solve an ill structured problem, based on real world

issues, where previous knowledge of the content is

not required. The problem drives all learning. It

frames the learning process for students and provides

the purpose for learning. The idea is to teach students

to learn how to learn. By having tosolve problems,

students practice learning rather than merely

memorizing. Students are placed at the center of the

learning process; instead of the teacher, who is

generally at the forefront, dictating the lesson. PBL

represents an educational approach where the

problem comes first and learning is conducted in

context. The aim however is not primarily to solve

the problem, but rather to get students to identify and

search for the knowledge that they need to obtain in

order to approach the problem. There are several key

features of problem-based learning.

Ill-structured problem-which is ill-defined,

open ended, and complex. There are one or

more unclear or unknown elements. Ill-

structured problems can consist of multiple

solutions, solution paths, or no solutions at

all.

Student centered-the instructor’s traditional

role changes. The instructor does not dictate

the learning; instead takes on the role as a

coach/tutor; facilitating and guiding the

student’s thinking and learning versus front

loading the information to students.

Students learn the content as they

address aproblem.

Self-directed-students assume responsibility

for their learning. They take ownership of

their learning process

through self and peer assessment and access

their own learning materials.

Self-reflective-learners adjust their strategies

for learning by monitoring their

understanding.

Collaborative-students work together in

groups of three to eight. There is a shift from

individual knowledge and control to group

knowledge and group control. Within

groups, students generate and test

E D I T 7 3 0



hypothesis, create learning goals, and

possible solutions.

Who is doing it? In addition to the medical field, the adoption of

PBL is also implemented in other educational

institutions such as architecture, business

administration, engineering studies, law schools,

social work, teacher education, higher education,

and K-12 education. PBL students in architecture,

chemical engineering and engineering studies

solve design problems (Jonassen & Hung, 2008).

PBL curriculum significantly enhanced

engineering students’ performance on the

Mechanics Baseline Test, in which the focus of

the test wason understanding and application of

the concepts rather than recall of factual

knowledge (Hung, Jonassen, & Liu, 2008).

Nursing, social work, and teacher education students

primarily deal with diagnosis-solution problems

(Jonassen & Hung, 2008). Business administration and

leadership education focus on decision-making and

policy analysis problems (Jonassen & Hung, 2008). In

law schools, PBL students learn toconstruct arguments,

based on evidentiary reasoning, to solve a complex

form of rule-using problems. PBL transfers

the active role in the classroom to students through

problems that connect to their lives in the field and

procedures that require them to find needed

information, think through a situation, solve the

problem, and develop a final presentation. As PBL

continues to migrate to other academic disciplines,

instructors need to consider the nature of the problems

being solved and how effective PBL methodologies are

for those kinds ofproblems.

How effective is it? The problem-based learning model turns the student

from passive information recipient to active self-

learner and problem solver. It slides the emphasis from

teaching to learning. PBL enables students to learn

new knowledge through the problems to be solved

instead of dictating content. Problem-based learning

positively affects the attitudes of students in relation to

problem solving, thinking, collaboration, information

sharing and acquisition and communication. It also

enables students to see events from multiple

perspectives. Students develop problem solving skills

and are encouraged to learn new materials and

concepts when solving problems. Social and

communication skills are also enabled because

students are required to study and work as a team.

Students who are taught through PBL become self-

directed learners with the desire to know and learn the

ability to formulate their needs as learners, and the

ability to select and use the best available resources to

satisfy theirneeds.

What are the implications for instructional design? Problem-based learning is not universally applicable

to different learning problems. The primary goal of

PBL is to enhance students’ application of

knowledge, problem solving, and self-directed

learning skills by requiring them to actively

articulate, understand, and solve problems (Jonassen

& Hung, 2008). PBL is problem focused, where

learners begin learning by addressing an authentic

problem. The subject matter content and skills to be

learned are organized around problems, rather than as

a hierarchical list of topics. There is a reciprocal

relationship between knowledge and the problem

(Jonassen & Hung, 2008). Learning is stimulated by

the problem and applied back to the problem.

Problem-based learning is a great way for instructors

to develop students’ intrinsic interest in the subject

matter, emphasize learning as opposed to recall,

promote collaborative learning, and help students

become self-directed learners. According to a follow-

up qualitative meta-synthesis of problem-based

learning research conducted by Strobel and van

Barnveld (Jonassen, 2011), PBL resulted in superior

long term retention, satisfaction, and skill of students

and teachers compared to the traditional approaches,

such as lecture which was more effective for short-

term retention (Jonassen, 2011). The appropriate

technology to present learning problems, aswell as,

tools to facilitate electronic communication such as

discussion boards, wikis, blogs, etc.) and access to

Web-based resources can also play a major role in

enhancing students’ problem solving skills. These

tools are integral for learning through PBL and

moreover to prepare students for problem solving and

21st Century Learning.



Scenario

During the first half of the 20th century, U.S.

armed forces used Kahoolawe, an island in the

Hawaiian chain, as a target for gunnery and

bombing practice. After World War II, it was

returned to the stewardship of the state of Hawaii.

As a middle school teacher, you think this scenario

would provide an excellent opportunity for your

students to understand the interdependencies of

ecology and human activity. By assuming the

responsibility the government had, “to restore the

island of Kahoolawe for use by the Hawaiian

people,” students will enhance their skills in

several domains, including science, community

planning, team building, and problem

management. Extensive data on the Web and in

various media are available for students to use;

however, there is no one correct or ideal solution.

You decide to implement this scenario in your

classroom as follows.

Students will be grouped into multidisciplinary

teams. Each team member will have a different

role and responsibility and may collaborate with

members of other teams charged with a similar

role. Team members will research, problem

solve, collaborate, and develop a comprehensive

island restoration plan. Each team will present its

conclusions and justify its findings. Restoration

plans must include provisions for infrastructure,

human services, business enterprises, and

ecological sanctuaries. To ensure students can

effectively transfer their skills to new contexts,

you will “move the exercise” into a different

geographic location— either to Prince William

Sound, Alaska, after the Exxon Valdez oil spill,

or to the overlogged tropical forests of Costa

Rica.



References

Delisle, R. (1997). How to use problem-based learning in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Emanovský, P. (2015). Problem-based learning and its effect on learners’ relationships. Problems of

Education in the 21st Century, 63, 53 - 61.

Hung, W., Jonassen, D. H., & Liu, R. (2008). Problem-based learning. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. van

Merrienboer, & M. Driscoll (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology

(3rd ed). New York, NY: Routledge.

Jonassen, D. H., & Hung, W. (2008). All problems are not equal: Implications for problem-based learning.

Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 2(2).

Jonassen, D.H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning


Tandogan, R. O., & Orhan, A. (2007). The effects of problem-based active learning in science education on students'

academic achievement, attitude and concept learning. Online Submission, 3(1), 71-81.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered

pedagogical model, which assumes that students

working in groups of four to six learn about the

subject through the experience of solving a real-world

ill structured problem that may have multiple solutions

and/or solution paths. “In problem based learning

students use ’triggers ‘from the problem case or

scenario to define their own learning objectives.

Subsequently they do independent, self- directed study

before returning to the group to discuss and refine

their acquired knowledge. Thus, PBL is not about

problem solving per se, but rather it uses appropriate

problems to increase knowledge and understanding.”

(Wood, 2003). PBL is a pedagogical model that is part

of constructivist learning environment. Major goals of

PBL are to help students develop collaborative

learning skills, reasoning skills, interpersonal and

communication skills, and self-directed learning

strategies (Barrows, 1985). Each PBL study group has

a teacher who acts as a mentor and coach by

facilitating the problem-solving process and providing

appropriate resources. (Bannan & Dabbagh, 2005).

The teacher no longer lectures — when PBL is

integrated into the course, students are encouraged to

take a responsible role in their learning. The teacher is

not the only source of information and knowledge.

Students must take the initiative to inquire, find the

information, and learn. The teacher guides, providing a

scaffolding for students' initiatives. What students

learn during their self-directed learning is applied back

to the problem with reanalysis and resolution

How does it work? Project-based learning is a complex pedagogical model,

which requires a lot of preparation and planning. The

main steps of PBL implementation from the teacher’s

side described in “How Does Project-Based Learning

Work?” (edutopia.org) are: 1. Formulate the essential

question (open-ended, ill structured, and based on real

world authentic situation); 2. Design a lesson plan

(activities that support the question and motivate the

students, resources that are available, integration of

related topics, and themes); 3. Create a timeline (length

of the project, benchmarks, milestones, supporting


EVGENIY LEKAREV

students with time management); 4. Monitor the

students (control over the project without preventing

students from taking responsibility for their work; help

with collaborative work; resources and “scaffolding”);

5. Assess the outcome (including students’ self-

assessment); 6. Evaluate the experience (including

individual and group reflection). At the same time,

Hmelo-Silver (2004) describes the learning cycle from

the students’ perspective: After presenting a problem

scenario, students formulate and analyze the problem

by identifying the relevant facts from the scenario,

identifying knowledge deficiencies, and generate

hypotheses about possible solutions. Knowledge

deficiencies become what are known as learning

issues that students research during their self-directed

learning. After research and learning new facts,

students apply their new knowledge to the essential

problem, reanalyze the scenario, and evaluate their

hypotheses about possible solutions. After a group

discussion, the groups make corrections to the initial

hypotheses and then provide their solution to the

teacher. Students also reflect on their individual and

group experience and receive feedback from the

teacher.

Who is doing it? American psychologist, philosopher and educator John

Dewey in 1894 founded the experimental school in

Chicago where education was based not on the

curriculum, but on games and work projects. Those

ideas are the foundation for problem-based learning.

PBL as we understand it now was introduced in the

medical school program at McMaster University in

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in the late 1960s by

Howard Barrows and his colleagues. McMaster

University Medical School came up with an

instructional format that used realistic medical

problems that physicians have to deal with.

Introducing “problems” in a course was not the

innovative element here, but rather the moment that

students were presented with these problems, namely

as the starting point of the learning process before any

other curriculum input (Barrows, 1996). The term

“problem-based learning” was first used in McMaster

University Medical School. Since then, PBL has been

implemented in numerous programs across many

domains and at many educational levels on a world-

E D I T 7 3 0



wide scale (Barrows, 1996). Nowadays the PBL

pedagogical model is implemented in legal and

financial education, educational administration,

business, educational psychology, engineering,

chemistry, and K-12 education. In Eastern Europe

problem‐based instruction is used in mathematics and physics for school-aged and university students.

How effective is it? Problem-based learning has been in existence for over

50 years and it has proven its effectiveness in medical

education. Nowadays it is used in a variety of different

disciplines and its effectiveness in different areas is still

under discussion. As any other pedagogical model it has

its advantages and disadvantages therefore the

effectiveness of PBL may vary. Some researchers

showed that traditional knowledge-based assessments

of curriculum outcomes have shown little or no

difference in student graduation from PBL or traditional

curricula.

However, students from PBL curricula seem to have

better knowledge retention (Wood, 2003). The

research conducted by Johannes Strobel and Angela

van Barneveld (2009) where they compared PBL

effectiveness vs. traditional approaches showed that

overall, students and staff indicated greater

satisfaction with the PBL approach to learning.

Standardized tests that measured knowledge of basic

science focusing on short-term acquisition and

retention favored the traditional approach across all

studies. However, when the method used to assess

basic science knowledge required a level of elaboration

beyond multiple-choice or true/false questions, results

significantly favored the PBL approach. Standardized

tests and other assessment methods that evaluated

skill-oriented application of knowledge, mixed

knowledge and long- term retention of knowledge,

skills, and clinical performance significantly favored

PBL. In addition, PBL instruction was effective when

it came to long-term retention and performance

improvement. PBL students were overall slightly

under-performing when it came to short-term

retention. Ultimately, the goal of PBL instruction

should be performance improvement and long-term

retention. Therefore, preference should be given to

instructional strategies that focus on students’

performance in authentic situations and their long-

term knowledge retention, and not on their

performance on tests aimed at short-term retention of

knowledge (Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009). Of

course, effectiveness of PBL is highly dependable on

quality of the scenarios. What types of scenarios

(problem types) are effective for PBL is

discussed in the next paragraph.


Effectiveness of PBL as an instructional methodology

is different with different learning problems. What

factors should be considered by a teacher or

instructional designer in order to make PBL curricula

more effective? Jonassen and Hung (2008) suggest that

a better way to resolve these questions is to directly

compare the effectiveness of PBL by problem type,

rather than problem discipline. Problem difficulty

plays a significant role in the process of creating PBL

curricula. Students’ perceptions of problem difficulty

affect their willingness to engage with problems — a

problem with an appropriate difficulty level is within

learners’ cognitive readiness and therefore solvable,

while a high difficulty level of problem may exceed the

learners’ readiness and result in failure. Very well-

structured problems, like story problems, may not be

appropriate for PBL. Similarly, very ill-structured and

complex problems (design problems) may be too

difficult to learn in a PBL environment. According to

Jonassen and Hung (2008) general principles for

designing good PBL problems should be:

• “open ended, ill structured, however, with a

moderate degree of structure;

• complex, however, the degree of complexity

should be challenging and motivating,

engaging students’ interests; provide

opportunities for students to examine the

problem from multiple perspectives or disciplines;

• adapted to students’ prior knowledge; • adapted to students’ cognitive development and

readiness;

• authentic;

• contextualized as to students’ future or potential

workplaces” (p.16).

The technologies that work best for PBL are

anchor video and interactive video games.



Scenario Yakov Rasin is an 8th-grade physics teacher. They are

about to start a new topic — uniformly accelerated

motion. The topic is very important for future study

and the students have to know the formula for

uniformly accelerated motion by heart in order to be

successful. Based on his previous experience Rasin

knows that students have a hard time remembering the

formula that was presented to them during class. He

decides to use a problem- based learning scenario in

order to introduce the new topic. The PBL scenario

Rasin came up withis:

“What would be the most efficient way (time-wise)

to travel from Moscow to Tver by car:

1. Nonstop driving with an average speed of

80 km per hour or 2. With two stops for fueling and snacking

with a maximum speed of 100 km per hour (each

stop takes 5 min; car goes from 0 to 100 for 13 sec

and from 100 to 0 for 30 sec?”

While solving the problem students will be able to

derive the formula themselves and Rasin knows that

retention of this type of knowledge is much higher.

The challenge for Rasin is to present the problem

open-ended with appropriate level of structure. Even

though problems in physics are usually well-

defined, Rasin knows that everything is relative and

a well- defined problem for a teacher of physics may

appear ill- defined for his students. In addition, tasks

in physics are more likely to have one correct

solution; however, the deriving formula for

uniformly accelerated motion has multiple paths

(algebraic and graphic) even considering students’

limited prior knowledge. Moreover, working on a

problem scenario students will be able to activate

prior knowledge, review the important parts of the

curricula and more importantly, will learn valuable

skills of collaboration and independent learning

research. The process of deriving a formula for

uniformly accelerated motion requires knowledge in

different domains such as algebra, geometry,

trigonometry, geometry, and physics. The students

already possess all necessary knowledge in these

domains (vectors, exponentiation, rooting, function

of cosine, angle, and uniform velocity motion).

Therefore, they will not need much help from the

teacher. The only help they might need is in the

direction of thinking and understanding that, in order

to solve the presented problem, they will need to

comprehend a new notion — acceleration.



References

Barrows, H. S. (1985). How to design a problem-based curriculum for pre-clinical years? New York, NY:

Springer

Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In L. Wilkerson & H.

Gilselaers (eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies and application. Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hmelo-Silver C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology

Review, 16(3), 235-266. Retrieved fromhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/23363859

How does project-based learning work? (2007, October 19). Retrieved fromhttp://www.edutopia.org/project-

based-learning- guide-implementation.

Jonassen, D. H., & Hung, W. (2008). All problems are not equal: Implications for problem-based learning.

Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 2(2). Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1080

Loyens, S. M., M., Kirschner, P. & Paas, F. (2011). Problem-based learning. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham & T.

Urdan (Eds.), APA Educational Psychology Handbook, 3. Washington: American Psychological

Association. Retrieved from http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/1235/

Strobel, J., & van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL more effective? A meta-synthesis of meta-analyses

comparing PBL to conventional classrooms. The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based

Learning, 3(1), 44-58. Retrieved from http://teacherscollegesj.edu/docs/47-

WhenisPBLMoreEffectiveetasynthesisofMetaanalysesCom_1226201292924.pdf

Wood D.F. (2003). ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning. BMJ: British Medical

Journal, 326(7384), 328-330. Retrieved fromhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/25453619

http://www.jstor.org/stable/23363859

http://www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-

http://www.edutopia.org/project-based-learning-

http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1080

http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1080

http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/1235/

http://teacherscollegesj.edu/docs/47-WhenisPBLMoreEffectiveetasynthesisofMetaanalysesCom_1226201292924.pdf

http://teacherscollegesj.edu/docs/47-WhenisPBLMoreEffectiveetasynthesisofMetaanalysesCom_1226201292924.pdf


CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional

methodology that is grounded on the theory of

constructivism which contends that individuals form

or construct much of what they learn and understand,

therefore learning and understanding is a function of

how the individual creates meaning from his or her

own experiences. This new approach to learning and

understanding got its roots in the works of Piaget,

Bruner and Goodman. As one moves along the

behaviorist-cognitivist- constructivist continuum, the

focus of instruction shifts from teaching to learning,

from passive transfer of facts and routines to the active

application of ideas to problems (Ertmer 1993). PBL

came about as a reaction to the failure of traditional

teaching methods of delivering adequate preparation

of medical students to solve problems in a clinical

environment. Instead of requiring students to master

content in non- specific environments, it began

embedding students’ learning processes in real-life

problems. It takes into consideration that when we

solve the primary problems that we encounter day in

and day out,we learn. Discounting the belief that

learning ceases when one leaves formal education,

PBL posits that life is full of learning opportunities

since all life is problem solving. It takes into

consideration the theories of situated learning, which

states that learning is most effective when embedded

in authentic tasks that are anchored in everyday living.

When solving everyday problems, learners create

meaning derived from knowledge that is anchored in

specific contexts, making it more meaningful and

integrated, better retained, and more transferable. This

way problems provide a purpose for learning.

How does it work? The primary purpose of PBL is to promote learning

by requiring learners to solve problems. The learners

consider simulations of authentic, ill- structured

problems with the content and skills to be learned

embedded in the problem. Learners assume

responsibility, individually and collaboratively for

generating learning issues, and processes, through

self-assessments and peer assessments and access to

their own materials and use self- reflective techniques

to monitor their understanding and learn to adjust


CANDIDO MENDES

strategies for learning. Students in groups offive

to eight analyze a problem by defining it, set learning

goals and determine what they already know, what

they need to learn to better equip themselves to solve

the problem, and decide on the activities to be carried

out by each member of the team. In a self-

directed mode, students complete their tasks to better

understand the problem and possible solutions and

prepare to rejoin the group. At a working session of

the group, students share their information, revisit

the problem, consider additional hypothesis while

rejecting others. Students consider problems such as

cases, narrative of complex, real world challenges

common to the discipline being studied, and become

active investigators and problem solvers in small

collaborative groups, defining theproblem, proposing

alternatives and solutions to be implemented.

Teachers act as facilitators of learning, acting as

guides to the process and creating a learning

environment that promotes learning through the

application of knowledge.

Their role is to support and model reasoning

processes, facilitate group processes, and

interpersonal dynamics, probe student's knowledge

deeply and never interject content or provide direct

answers to questions.

Who is doing it? Since its adoption by the medical community in the

1960s to train medical students, PBL made its way to

other disciplines like business, dentistry, health

sciences, law, engineering and education. In the 1980s,

the report of the Panel on the General Professional

Education of the Physician and College Preparation

for Medicine made the recommendation for changes in

medical education such as promoting independent

learning and problem solving, reducing lecture hours,

reducing schedule time, and evaluating the ability to

work independently. These recommendations helped

to expand PBL in medical education. In the 1990s

PBL expanded to other professional schools such as

architecture, business administration, chemical

engineering, engineering studies, law schools,

leadership, education, nursing, social work, and

teacher education. The implementation of PBL in K-

12 Education has shown positive results in a variety of

content areas like math, science, history,

E D I T 7 3 0



microeconomics and it has been implemented

effectively in rural, urban and suburban communities

with a wide variety of populations. There is a growing

interest inboth K-12 and higher education as many

books have been published on this subject and there

are several Internet servers concerned with PBL. With

an emphasis in promoting critical thinking, problem

solving, and collaborative skills, PBL offers core skills

essential to navigate in today’s environment flooded

by information overload and constant change.

Research reveals that three major complaints that

employers have about college graduates includes poor

written and verbal skills, inability to problem solve,

and difficulties in working collaboratively with other

professionals. PBL can be a solution in all threeareas.

How effective is it? PBL is often perceived as favoring higher order

thinking and problem- solving skills rather than

memorization of facts. There’s research on the

effectiveness of PBL in the medical field, however the

K-12 lacks conclusive research results. Studies in

engineering show that students who studied under a

PBL curriculum scored higher on their Mechanics

Baseline Test, which focuses on understanding and

application of the concepts rather than the recall of

factual knowledge. Other studies revealed no

significant differenceexisted in content acquisition

between students that were in the PBL course and the

students that were not in the PBL course. The same is

not true for the medical field which has a rich body of

evidence for evaluating the effectiveness of PBL. In

several studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness

of PBL, the PBL classes performed substantially better

on both the basic science and clinical science, with

traditional curriculum classes scoring significantly

lower than the national mean score. However, overall,

in accordance with two meta analyses done, the PBL

research findings have been mixed. Traditional

curriculum students perform better on basic science

acquisition, but PBL students perform better on clinical

knowledge acquisition and reasoning. As for

retention of content, traditional students score slightly

better in short term memory with PBL students

scoring higher in long-term memory. In terms of

critical thinking skills, the main promise of PBL, PBL

students showed significant increase in the use of

problem solving. PBL students also showed a positive

impact on student’s ability to apply basic science

knowledge and transfer and transfer of problem

solving skills to real world professional and personal

situations.

What are the implications for instructional design? PBL has been called the greatest innovation in

teaching methodologies in the last half a century. Its

overall goal to educate students to be self- directed,

independent, lifelong learners through observation of

teachers’ modeling problem solving, reasoning, and

metacognition processes, students learn how to think

and learn independently. Research data reveals that

PBL graduates rate themselves better prepared

professionally than their counterparts in terms of

interpersonal skills, cooperation skills, problem

solving skills, self-directed learning, information

gathering, professional skills and the ability to work

and plan efficiently and independently. This in turn

prepares them for real- world challenges. Employers

who hired PBL graduates had a lot of positive

feedback in regards to their ability of their self-

directedness and independence in solving work

related problems and improving professional

development. Several studies reveal students’

positive perception of PBL in promoting their

learning in dealing with complex problems. The use

of reflection is an important element of PBL

providing a framework for students to become

effective problemsolvers by exercising higher order

thinking skills to identify personal and organizational

factors that constitute the challenges they face in

work settings. PBL offers advantages to both

organizations and educational environments by

promoting lifelong learning habits of mind which are

indispensable qualities of successful professionals. In

a PBL environment students and teachers redefine

their roles. Teachers redefine the nature of learning,

and in turn change their roles from a

knowledge/information/transmitter to a

learning/thinking process facilitator. As facilitators,

they monitor students’ development of thinking or

reasoning skills that promote problem solving,

metacognition and critical thinking as well as help

them to become independent and self-directed

learners.

Students become the initiators of their own learning,

making the inquiries themselves, and conducting

problem solving themselves switching from passive

information receivers to active learners.



Scenario

Geritol Solution

Written by Deborah Allen. August, 1993; Revised

August, 1995.

John H. Martin, the director of the Moss Landing Marine

Laboratories, thinks the potential problem of global

warming could be addressed by dumping iron into the

ocean waters off Antarctica. He and his coworkers have

demonstrated that the amount of chlorophyll found in

ocean water samples collected (in 30 L bottles) from the

Gulf of Alaska can be increased up to nine-fold by the

addition ofiron.

When they repeated this fertilization experiment with

samples collected from a few hundred miles off the

Antarctic coast, he and his colleagues found that for every

unit of iron added to Antarctic sea water, the organic

carbon content increased by a factor of 10,000. Martin's

degree of confidence in his proposal is reflected in a

remark he (half-jokingly) made during a lecture at the

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute: "Give me half a

tanker of iron and I'll give you an Ice Age."

Questions

□ What is the basis for Martin's premise that seeding

the ocean with iron would help combat potential

greenhouse warming?

□ What organisms found in sea water could account for

the increase in chlorophyll content and biological productivity that Martin and his research group

observed?

□ Why did Martin choose to add iron to the water, rather than some other substance?

□ Is global warming a reality? Has it actuallyhappened?



References

Allen, D. (1993, August 1). PBL: The Geritol Solution. Retrieved November 3, 2015,

from http://www.udel.edu/pbl/curric/bisc207

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Comparing critical

features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.

Jonassen, D. H., & Liu, R. (2008). Problem-based learning. Handbook of research on

educational communications and technology, 3, 485-506.

Jonassen, D. H. (2010). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving

learning environments. NewYork, NY: Routledge.

Savery, J. R. (2015). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Essential

readings in Problem-Based Learning: Exploring and extending the legacy of Howard S.

Barrows. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press.

http://www.udel.edu/pbl/curric/bisc207

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Problem Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional model that initiates learning by working towards a solution to an authentic problem. While solving the problem, students construct content knowledge, develop problem-solving skills, and develop self- directed learning skills. Knowledge is constructed and constantly reorganized through reflection on actions based on a pattern of inquiry. The learning process is embedded in real-life problems.

Theoretical Grounding Problem-based learning is grounded in constructivism. The following assumptions created around constructivism apply themselves to problem based learning: • Knowledge evolves from the interactions

within our environment as well as interactions within the social environment.

• Learning results from cognitive conflict and determines the nature and organization of what is learned.

• Meaning and thinking are distributed among culture and community and thrive in relevant contexts.

Contemporary learning theories such as situated learning and cognitive apprenticeships share the same rationale for problem-based learning focusing on authentic contexts, and are implemented using anchored instruction and goal based scenarios.

History of PBL

The medical educators at McMasters University in Canada have been credited with the development of problem-based learning in the 1950s and 1960s (Boud, 1997). Throughout the 1980s and 1990s several other prominent medical universities around the world started to develop problem-based curricula. Problem- based learning was originally designed to fix the problems that arose from traditional teaching and learning for medical students in clin-ical settings. The problem-based learning model for instruction also spread to K-12 education; more specifically, in the subject areas of math andscience. Both fields of medicine and education wanted to solve the lack of problem-solving and life long-learning skills to ensure the future success of students.


REBECCA SZYMANSKI

How does it work?

Instructional Characteristics The instructional characteristics of problem-based learning include, but are not limited to:

• Knowledge is acquired and evolves throughout the problem solving process.

• Learning is self-directed by assessing the learning of them-selves and others.

• Learning is self-reflective. Students self- monitor his or her own learning and make adjustments along the way.

• Learning is student-centered. • The facilitator acts as a tutor in order to guide

learners through the learning process.

Role of the Instructor When looking at the last two characteristics above, it is clear that problem-based learning is student- centered and the facilitator plays the role of a tutor, or coach. The facilitator does not directly give away answers, but instead guides learners toward achieving their own learning goals by providing feedback and supporting professional development. The two characteristics mentioned reveal that the role of the instructor is very minimal throughout the learning process, but is used as a means to facilitate group discussions advocate deep reasoning.

Structure of Implementation The typical structure of problem-based learning is broken down into several steps. This structure requires learners to use higher level thinking skills throughout the learning process and ultimately come up with a solution. Step 1(Ideas and Hypotheses): Learners are placed in groups of 5 to 8 and roles are defined for each member of the group. Learners then define the problem and setting learning goals. Step 2(Facts and Problem Information): Learners work on their specified tasks by collecting resources and conducting research using tools to help them solve the given problem. Step 3(Learning Issues): Learners share the knowledge they have gained so far, and add additional information, or reject information that does not help solve the problem. Step 4(Action Plan): The final step is for students to summarize the knowledge gained and integrate all learning that has occurred.

E D I T 7 3 0



Who is doing it? Applications of PBL Problem-based learning has been found to be most prominent in the medical and business higher education programs, but ca in many other fields as well. Problem-based learning is starting to become more popular in the K-12 school and is also prevalent in engineering education as well. There are many different types problems used to facilitate problem-based learning for a variety learning purposes. According to Jonassen, there are eleven kinds problems, each differing in complexity, structure, context, dynamicity, and domain specificity (Jonassen, 2011). The following examples are current applications of problem-based learning,a description of how problem-based learning is being used

Medical Education Often times, when students enter medical school, they are divided into groups. Each group gets assigned a facilitator. Students are then presented with a problem, usually involving a patient entering with symptoms, and asked to come up with a diagnosis, a rational for the diagnosis, and a recommended treatment plan. Students are not provided with any resources to solve the problem, but instead students need to look for their own reliable resources using the medical library or use resources from an online database. The problem can take students anywhere from a week to three weeks to solve.

MBA Programs Business school programs use a similar application of problem- based learning as medical school. In the MBA program at Ohio University, problems are presented, students locate their own resources to solve the problem, and then students present their solution. These problems may take between five and eight weeks for students to compose their solution, and may have sub-problems that keep students engaged


Effectiveness Some research has been conducted to determine the learning outcomes of problem-based learning; however, there is little research to support problem based learning outside of the medical field. In K-12 education, research has revealed that students who learn through problem-based learning had no significant difference in scores on standardized tests than students who learned the content in a traditional

format. On the other hand, significant differences were found between problem-based learning instruction and tradi-tional instruction in the medical field. Medical school students who were taught with problem-based learning instruction scored significantly higher than the national mean score on the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination, scored higher than students taught in tradi-tional classrooms when students had to apply knowledge to clinical reasoning, and performed better than their peers in their clerkships (Dunlap, 2005).

Skills Acquired Many skills are acquired through problem-based learning including, but not limited to, problem solving, critical thinking, the abili-ty to evaluate and use appropriate resources, self- monitoring, self- reflection, and increased confidence. Higher level thinking skills such as problem solving, critical thinking, and evaluating are used throughout problem-based learning. Learners are constantly testing out new ideas and deciding which information is most relevant to find the best solution to the problem at hand. Self-monitoring, self-reflection, and increased confidence levels are also acquired and practiced throughout the learning process. Setting learning goals and self-regulating learning allows the learner to further develop these skills for future endeavors; therefore, increasing the level of confidence the learner has when they come in contact with the next learning challenge.


An instructional designer might recommend the use of problem- based learning when a learner is trying to develop skills needed to perform a specific job. Many jobs require experience in order to be successful. If experience is unable to be acquired quickly, then problem-based learning can act as a tool to build necessary skills to start the job. For example, behavior management is a necessary skill to have when starting out a teaching career; however, most behavior management knowledge results from experience. If new teachers lack experience, a problem-based learning scenario, requiring the implementation of behavior management skills, would be a perfect way to practice applying those skills to a real world situation. Several positive outcomes result from the use of problem-based learning, which include, an increase in problem- solving, confidence, critical thinking, self-reflection, self- monitoring, motivation, and collaboration.



These outcomes help shape life-long learning and are required in order for the problem-based learning model to be successful.

Technology Websites can be used to organize problem-based learning itself. Websites can organize groups and allow those groups to collabo-rate within the same learning environment. Chartrooms can aid with collaboration along with areas to share files. Online resources can also be used for several purposes such as, writing problems, obtaining inspiration for problem development, and finding information to solve problems. Using technology to find resources re-quires the learner to evaluate critical sources, this becomes a skill that will be relevant throughout lifelong learning.

Scenario

Step 1: The problem is presented. Mary Smith, a 28-year-old office worker and part-time swimming instructor, comes to see her doctor because of pain in her chest and shortness of breath. This has been a recurring problem in recent months and seems to be gradually worse. On the previous evening, while participating in a swimming gala, she became so short of breath that she found it difficult to walk.

Step 2: In groups, learners define the problem and set learning goals.

Step 3: Individuals conduct research from the medical library and online data bases.

Step 4: More information about the case is presented to continue engagement. The instructor acts as a guide throughout the process. Further discussion with her doctor reveals that Ms. Smith’s chest pain and shortness of breath come on following exercise, particularly in a cold environment. When she becomes particularly short of breath, she starts to wheeze. There is no recent history of physical trauma and no personal or family history of heart disease. She had eczema in childhood but has never had asthma. She has smoked for the past 5 years and increased her smoking to 40 cigarettes a day since she broke up with her intimate friend 3 months ago. She takes an oral contraceptive pill but no other medication. Develop a diagnosis to present to Ms. Smith and a treatment plan.

Step 5: Share information within the group to add additional information or get rid of irrelevant information.

Step 6: Summarize the knowledge gained and integrate all information into the final product.



References

Boud, D. (1997). What is problem-based learning? In the challenge of problem-based learning. London,

England: Kogan Page.

Dabbagh, N., Jonassen, D.H., Yueh, H.P., & Samouilova, M. (2000). Assessing a problem- based learning

approach in an introductory instructional design course: A case study. Performance

Improvement Quarterly, 13(3), 60-83.

Dunlap, J. (2005). Problem-based learning and self-efficacy: How a capstone course prepares students

for a profession. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53, 65-83.



Watson, G. (2002). Using technology to promote success in PBL courses. Retrieved from: http://

technology- source.org/article/using_technology_to_promote_success_in_pbl_courses/.

Wilson, B. (1996). Problem-based learning in constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional

design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it?

Problem based learning is first and foremost an

instructional strategy, it is designed as a means, or

methodology, to improve learning and knowledge

retention by requiring students to learn content, on

their own, while working to solve a problem. The

main factor in these problems is that the problem itself

is very ill-structured. Problem based Learning (PBL),

first began as a medical school training program

(Jonassen, 2011), a change from the traditional

teaching and learning paradigm. By replacing basic

approaches to learning medicine, students from their

first day of training work in groups to solve diagnostic

medical problems. In a PBL setting, students usually

work in groups to solve a complex problem, because

the answers will be detailed and open- ended,

performance focuses on a higher-level of cognitive

applications (Burris, 2007). These applications can

come in the form of higher level analysis, synthesis,

and evaluation. Some of the defining characteristics of

Problem Based Learning are that it is driven by

challenging and no ‘one’ solution type of problem.

These types of open-ended problems are the type

where there is no one right answer.

Often with PBL, students work is self-directed, as they

are active participants and problem solvers while

working in groups collaboratively (Delisle, 1997). It is

in PBL that teachers work more as facilitators and

guides. Teacher’s functions have been altered to be

much more than a means of transfer, they are now

more supporters to the learning process, creating an

environment based around drive and investigation.

How does it work? Problem based learning works because it situates the

learning in real world and authentic problem solving.

Through the use of Problem Based Learning, student

–centered activities replace the traditional teacher-

student narrative and seek instead to let the learning

happen at a pace and direction more suited to the

individual student, or group of students, and thereby

removes the more standard one-dimensional teaching

modality of lecturer and note taker. Problem Based

Learning focuses mainly on four basic criteria to

function; it is designed to be self-reflective, it is here


WILLIAM WICK

that students monitor there learning and make

adjustments. It is self- directed and that allows

students to work collaboratively or individually,

assuming responsibility for their learning and self-

assessment. Its functional purpose if always student

centered and based not on the teacher but

removes the teacher almost entirely from the

learning. Mainly it works because it is totally and

completely problem focused and problem based.

Learners begin learning by addressing simulations of

an authentic, ill-structured problem. It is believed that

PBL leads to development of critical thinking as well

as creative skills. The use of this instructional

strategy also promotes higher level problem solving

skills by putting the learner in a situation through

which the learner takes responsibility and initiative.

Who is doing it? Problem Based Learning is gaining ground in both

higher education as well as K-12 educational

environments. Having its development begin in the

medical field, specifically medical school,

universities across the globe have embraced this

teaching and learning methodology and studies have

shown that problem based learning increases levels of

knowledge retention in both critical information and

informational domains that are considered secondary.

Education theorists and specialists such as Dewey,

have advocated for the use of teaching strategies that

are very similar to Problem Based Learning. These

strategies are used in professional trainings around

the world and they are used in secondary education

although not as heavily as in higher levels of

education (Morrison, 2004). Stanford University

(Stanford Online), for example, not only uses PBL

but they have created teacher training curriculum

based around how to effectively use PBL in the K-12

setting. A major university such as this also releases

quarterly reviews in not only how they use and apply

PBL strategies but also how it can be used by other

institutions of learning. Also there are many teacher

designed and directed problem based learning

professional developments (McPhee, 2002) that are

geared towards increasing not only the use of PBL in

the K-12 classroom, but also to increase the

effectiveness of the teachers who wish to apply the

strategy. As you can see there are many different

forms of PBL application around not only the United

States but also around the globe.

E D I T 7 3 0



How effective is it? Problem Based Learning is gaining ground in both

higher education as well as K-12 educational

environments. Having its development begin in the

medical field, specifically medical school, universities

across the globe have embraced this teaching and

learning methodology and studies have shown that

problem based learning increases levels of knowledge

retention in both critical information and informational

domains that are considered secondary. Education

theorists and specialists such as Dewey, have

advocated for the use of teaching strategies that are

very similar to Problem Based Learning. These

strategies are used in professional trainings around the

world and they are used in secondary education

although not as heavily as in higher levels of education

(Morrison, 2004). Stanford University (Stanford

Online), for example, not only uses PBL but they have

created teacher training curriculum based around how

to effectively use PBL in the K-12 setting. A major

university such as this also releases quarterly reviews

in not only how they use and apply PBL strategies but

also how it can be used by other institutions of

learning. Also there are many teacher designed and

directed problem based learning professional

developments(McPhee, 2002) that are geared towards

increasing not only the use of PBL in the K-12

classroom, but also to increase the effectiveness of the

teachers who wish to apply the strategy. As you can

see there are many different forms of PBL application

around not only the United States but also around the

globe.

Most researchers believe that this is often due in large

part to time restrictions, or simply put, the studies

were conducted over the time span of one or two

curricular units, which can vary anywhere between 4-6

weeks in total. When you look at studies that have

taken place over longer periods of time, you have

plenty of evidence to support that PBL is extremely

successful, especially when compared to more

traditional lecture-based instruction. In a study on

Problem Based Learning in the K-12 Education found

in the American Educational Research Jounal,

‘Analyses of individual patterns…confirm the results

of the between subject comparisons. The majority of

student recalled, comprehended, and applied concepts

better when learning took place via PBL compared to

lecture’ (Wirkala, 2011). While the evidence in the

Wirkala study can be seen as demonstrating little more

than what is commonly accepted by a good number of

practitioners, the fact that students show

better long term retention and ability with new

material when the instructional method is one that

engages the learner in an active role. Also, according

to Wirkala, the study showed ‘PBL to more effective

in fostering both comprehension and application of

concepts; thus the sequence of goal-oriented, inquiry-

like activities, may serve as an effective method that

heightens young students’ cognitive and affective

engagement (Wirkala, 2011).

What are the implications for instructional design? The implications for instructional design are as

plentiful as they are varied. Knowing that PBL is

designed to not only make students recognize that

they need to be creative in not only what they think,

but possibly, and maybe more important, how they

think, lends itself to the very nature of instructional

design. Problem Based Learning is certainly not a

new addition to the world of academia as well as the

world business, government and K-12 education.

Through the use of PBL there develops an unlimited

list of ways to apply it to instructional design, since

the types of problems instructional designers will

have to address deal often will ill-structured complex

problems, it seems that through the application of

PBL strategies recommendations for solutions can be

successfully created. At its core PBL relies on

functional collaboration and reflection, as

instructional designers we are rarely tasked to

complete projects on a solo basis and will find

ourselves working in groups or even large team, PBL

is especially useful for this type of work. It is a form

of active learning, and promotes knowledge

construction where our target audience, our learners,

need to learn how to cultivate flexible knowledge and

promote learning and applying problem solving

skills. As instructional designers we are tasked with

creating, designing and developing instructional

materials based on various needs, we can apply PBL

strategy to almost any situation in which new or

improved materials need to be created.



Scenario

A graduate level instructional design program has a large

number of part-time students, many of them public school

instructors seeking jobs in the private sector after

retirement and many others currently employed in non-

teaching positions. Although the school has a strong

theoretical program, it has lacked a way to give its part-

time students experience with a wide range of analysis and

design situations.

Students potentially could graduate from the program

with a deep knowledge of learning and instructional

theories, but without knowledge of how and when to

apply a particular theory to an actual learning situation.

Part-time students with full-time jobs need a flexible

learning environment. The school has licensed a software

system, Teacher's Assistant (T.A.), to provide students

with a range of cases that an instructional designer might

encounter. The cases presented to each learner will vary,

depending upon his/her zone of proximal development.

Each subsequent case will increase in complexity,

requiring the learner to enhance his/her problem-solving

skills. The program allows a team of students to work on

a case together, assuming different project roles. It also

allows an individual student to "work" the case alone,

while the computer simulates the roles of the other

players. The Teacher's Assistant can monitor the student's

research efforts and offer advice to improve his/her

technique. Experts in the field will judge the student's

proposed solution and offer critiques and alternate

solutions.

The Learning Outcomes are as follows:

The software program will support the following

objectives:

Proficiency and problem-solving proficiency within

the field of instructional design

Analytical and flexible thinking about possible

solutions and consequences



References

Blackburn, G. (2015). Innovative eLearning: Technology shaping contemporary Problem Based Learning: A crosscase

analysis. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 2(2), 1-19.

Burris, S., & Garton, B. (2007). Effect of instructional strategy on critical thinking and content knowledge: Using

problem-based learning in the secondary classroom. Journal of Agricultural Education JAE, 48(1), 106-116.

Delisle, R. (1997). What is problem-based learning? Retrieved from

http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/197166/chapters/What_Is_Problem- Based_Learning .aspx

Jonassen, D. (2011). Cases as problems to solve. Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-

solving learning environments (pp. 153-160). New York, NY: Routledge.

McPhee, A. (2002). Problem-based learning in initial teacher education: Taking the agenda forward.

Journal of Educational Enquiry, 3(I), 60-78.

Morrison, G., & Ross, S. (2004). Developing evaluation implements (7th Eds.). Designing effective instruction (pp. 290-

292). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons.

Wirkala, C., & Kuhn, D. (2011). Problem-based learning in K-12 education: Is it effective and how does it achieve its

effects. American Educational Research Journal, 48(5), 1157-1186.

http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/197166/chapters/What_Is_Problem-

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Situated Learning

What is it? Situated learning is a pedagogical model in which

students actively and socially participate in their

education. This instructional approach was developed

by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in the early 1990s and

introduced the concept of learning outside of the

classroom where context, culture and social interaction

all become vital factors in the learning process (Mahar,

S., & Harford, M., 2004). According to this model,

students have the opportunity to work with their

instructors ona particular activity and are able to

practice similar activities outside of the classroom on

their own. In this model the student’s memory

processors trigger in meaningful situations and the

knowledge obtained can be applied to similar situations

in the real world. Students can also participate in groups

as a community of practice where they share their skills

and knowledge with other students. Situated learning

creates meaning for activities outside of the classroom

which in turn gives importance to participation and

reflection in the classroom. FSI has made E-Homeroom,

a web based situated learning environment that

provides an authentic learning experience, available for

each of their language sections. E-Homeroom is

designed to be a multimedia program that helps teachers

and students stay connected in and outside of the

classroom. With their students, language instructors can

form communities of practice and use social interaction

and insight from past experiences to solve scenarios on

E-Homeroom to prepare the students to solve real life

issues which they will face on the job. Other

functionalities of E-Homeroom include the ease of

uploading materials; providing students with access to

shared materials, homework, links, text books with

audio, and other helpful information to help reinforce

what they have learned in class.

How does it work? Learning is driven and best presented through realistic

and complex problems that allow learners to learn to

think and practice like experts in the field (Paula, V.,

2003).

In situated learning, the instructor creates an

environment by organizing the information and

providing activities to help students learn. In a normal

classroom setting, the instructor teaches students

through lectures and presentations. In contrast, a


SHAKILA ANWARI

situated learning environment requires the instructor

to teach students by modeling, coaching, and

scaffolding and the learner uses this knowledge to

solve real life problems. Instructors in a situated

learning environment must engage students in

collaborative group based activities, discussions,

reflective thinking, and evaluations. Learners on the

other hand use these tools to become experts on a

subject and can show an apprentice student, step by

step, how to complete certain tasks. For example, in

modeling, the apprentice student learns by observing

the expert student. In coaching, the instructor provides

a wide range of activities and oversees the student’s

learningprocess.

In scaffolding, the instructor begins by providing full support to the students as they acclimate to the learning environment. This support slowly declines as time progresses to allow the students to become independent and take more responsibility for their learning.

Who is doing it? Organizations and institutions have applied the

situated learning pedagogy model to train their

employees or students by using simulations, role play,

and cases. Blackboard is considered a virtual learning

environment and is a good example of situated

learning which is already in practice. Blackboard is

used by many large universities and public and private

schools across the United States. Universities that

offer online classes use this model to provide a

learning environment for students to actively and

socially participate in their own learning. Blackboard

provides students with access to a class syllabus,

schedule, assignments, discussions, assessments,

grades, student-to- student, and student-to-teacher

collaborations. Intermediate schools are also using

online homerooms specific to their classrooms to

inform students about the objectives of the class and to

assign homework for student to work on

collaboratively. This model helps universities and

schools to provide tools for students so they can

participate in learning outside of the classroom setting.

George Mason's department of Religious Studies

introduced an online course called "The Human

Religious Experience" which applies the situated

learning approach of students co- constructing

E D I T 7 3 0


Situated Learning

knowledge through a social process, to meet Mason’s

core requirement on global understanding (Bond, S.,&

Campbell, S., 2015).

E-Homeroom is an online classroom that has been

modeled after situated learning and provides learning

tools for FSI students to learn a foreign language on

their own outside of the classroom.

How effective is it? There are several factors that demonstrate the effect of

situated learning on the learner. Since in a situated

learning environment learners are actively involved in

learning on their own, the effectiveness of their

learning will be inconsistent and depends on the

variety of activities that are being offered by their

instructor. Another effect of situated learning is that it

enhances the learner’s knowledge and improves their

cognitive ability through modeling, coaching and

scaffolding. Situated learning helps improve a novice

learner’s performance through apprenticeship.

Learning instruction through situated learning is more

effective than learning in a traditional learning

environment. Also the effect of students learning in a

partnership is long-term and students can benefit from

the knowledge they acquire long after their class is

over.

E-H omeroom, which is similar in design to Blackboard,

is new to FSI instructors and students. This model has

been proven to be effective when used as a classroom

away from the classroom. Classroom teaching has been

an effective approach to learning for a long time, but any

institution that includes situated learning to facilitate

student’s knowledge is more effective.


The use of situated learning as an approach to the design

of learning environments has significant implications

for the instructional design of computer-based programs

(Herrington, J., & Oliver, R., 2000). They believe that

computer-enhanced learning can be modeled and

designed based on situated learning environments. A

situated learning environment should consist of;

authentic context in which the content of learning is

modeled on the complexity of the real world which

helps learners reflect on real-life situations, authentic

activities which would help the

learner accomplish a task by solving a problem,

provide modeling, coaching, and scaffolding which

give learners multiple opportunities to engage in an

activity from different perspectives, help learners to

participate in critical thinking collaboratively,

encourage reflection to reinforce learning, and assess

and evaluate the progress of the learner while they are

performing the task. E-Homeroom is not designed to

take the place of an actual classroom, instead it is an

online learning tool that provides a wide range of

instructional materials which facilitate interactions

between teachers and students in and out of the

classroom. E-Homeroom is designed systematically as

a tool to guide the structure of the language course and

to provide step by step instructions for learner to use

this online site effectively. The design of E-

Homeroom helps facilitate the transfer of knowledge

and skill to the learner. Its content is simple and

meaningful to the learner.

Scenario John is a Foreign Service Officer who has been

assigned to learn Dari for his next assignment in

Kabul, Afghanistan where he will work at the

American Embassy as a political officer. In order to

qualify for this job he must be able to participate

effectively in most conversations on a wide variety of

topics and be able to read authentic prose material on

unfamiliar subjects within a normal range of speed

and with close to complete comprehension. In order

to meet these strict requirements he will spend the

next 36 weeks at the Federal Government’s primary

training facility, the Foreign Service Institute (FSI).

FSI students are required to spend 4-5 hours in class,

1-2 hours in the language lab, and 2-3 hours studying

at home every day. Students are also not allowed any

vacation days. Because of the intensity of this

program it is in the students’ best interest to not have

any absences.

Due to personal reasons, John will miss a few days of

class each week. His absenteeism has been approved

by his department, however he must still successfully

complete the language program within 36 weeks.

John learns that in order to address situations like

this, FSI has created a web based language program

called E-Homeroom that will allow students like

John to continue language training in the event of a

missed class.

E-Homeroom consists of up-to-date lessons which

include a variety of interactive speaking, listening,

reading, grammar, and vocabulary building exercises.

Continued on the next page…


Situated Learning

Once the student has completed all activities he will be

given multiple choice challenges allowing him to receive

instant feedback to assess what he has learned. With E-

Homeroom, students will be able to get the same type of

instruction as they would in the classroom with

dialogues, drills, narratives for reading, and practical

exercises. Instructors will be able to work with students

using online text or video chat and student will be able

to upload their written and recorded voice homework

daily for instructor’s feedback. In this way E-Homeroom

can help to mitigate the problems that most students and

teachers face when trying to play catch-up for missed

days. John feels thankful to FSI for offering an online

program like E- Homeroom so that he can continue his

language learning on his own without having to be away

from his family in a time of need.


Situated Learning

References

Bond, S., & Campbell, S. (2015). Helping students develop global understanding through Situated Learning: A religion

course example. Innovations in Teaching and Learning, Retrieved from

http://journals.gmu.edu/ITLCP/article/view/664

Dabbagh N., Bannan B. (2005) Online learning: concepts, strategies, and application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments. Educational

Technology Research and Development. Retrieved from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-

learning.html

Jonassen, D. (2011). Learning to solve problems. New York, NY: Routledge.

Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, England:


Mahar, S., & Harford, M. (2004). Research on human learning. Department of Education and Training, Victoria.

Retrieved from http://www.researchgate.net

publication/265173642_Research_on_Human_Learning_Background_Paper

Paula, V. (2003). The nature of situated learning. Innovations in Learning [pdf document]. Retrieved from

http://sites.tufts.edu/ests/files/2012/12/newsletter_feb_20031.pdf

Situated Learning. (n.d.). In Northern Illinois University, Faculty Development and Instructional Design Center.

Retrieved from http://www.facdev.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/situated_learning.pdf



http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/situated-

http://www.researchgate.net/



http://www.facdev.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/situated_learning.pdf

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Situated Learning

What is it?

Situated Learning emerged from anthropological

studies of informal learning. Learning in informal

contexts in the everyday world is an activity-based and

socially meditated phenomenon that occurs naturally in

communities of practice (Jonassen, 2010). A

community of practice (COP) is born when a group of

like-minded individuals come together for a common

goal or purpose. The COP is typically made up of

various individuals with different, but complementary

roles and experiences. Situated learning theories stress

the importance of embedding instruction in authentic,

everyday problems. Learning is always learned through

some type of context or scenario. Some of the critical

characteristics of situated learning for instructional

design are to; 1) Provide authentic context that reflect

the way the knowledge will be used in real-life; 2)

Provide authentic activities; 3) Provide access to expert

performances and the modeling of processes;

4) Provide multiple roles and perspectives; 5) Support

collaborative construction of knowledge; 6) Provide

coaching and scaffolding at critical times; 7) Promote

reflection to enable abstractions to be formed; 8)

Promote articulation to enable tacit knowledge to be

made explicit; 9) Provide for integrated assessment of

learning within the tasks. Situated learning was pre-

empted by proposing that ‘bridging apprenticeships’ be

designed to bridge the gap between the theoretical

learning in the formal instruction of the classroom

and the real-life application of the knowledge in the

work environment.

How does it work?

When learning in situ, the knowledge that is

constructed by learners is situated in the context in

which it is learned. Rather than defining learning in

terms of exam performance, knowledge is assessed

by the individual’s ability to participate in that

community. Rather than learning content devoid of

context and meaning, learning in a COP is focused

on becoming a fully participating member of that

community.

The persons who learn the most naturally move


KATRINA RAINER

toward the center of the COP (Lave and Wenger,

1991). The role of the instructor can take on many

different forms depending on the context of the COP.

If situated learning is happening in the classroom,

the teacher will naturally be the instructor.

However, if the situated learning is happening within

a non- classroom based COP, the individual with

the most experience and knowledge in the subject

matter or practice will organically become the

instructor.

When considering situated learning, learning takes

place not only within the individual learner’s mind,

but also among learners within an interactive

community. (McKelvey & Yuan, 2004) In order for

the Situated Learning method to be successful the

instructor must “provide authentic context that

reflects the way knowledge will be used in real life,

and is correlated with authentic challenges.”

(Hossainy, Zare, Hormozi, Shaghaghi, & Kaveh,

2012). Some key aspects of situated learning include,

but are not limited to: modeling, coaching,

scaffolding, reflection and articulation. Scaffolding

information is a key factor in situated learning.

Scaffolding means increasing the novice ability with

the support of a specialist and achieving expertise

with receiving feedback. By increasing the student’s

capabilities, the instructor adds complexity to the

environment and considers greater autonomy for

the learner. (Lave, 2008) It is important that the

instructor have a deft hand when considering

providing information to the learner. The learner will

need to make sense of the provided information, but

should not be swayed toward a particular solution

or “answer.” Due to the possible ill-defined solution

nature of this model, authentic assessments are

important when considering what the learner has

obtained. When situated learning is performed,

traditional evaluation methods lose their adequacy,

and assessment must be focused on understanding

and problem solving. (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp).

Who is doing it?

Due to the authentic learning that occurs within the

situated learning model, it can be easily implemented

E D I T 7 3 0


Situated Learning

in any field of study. One of the most prevalent

examples is the idea of a medical residency. Medical

interns are being immersed in the culture for a period

of time to experience and problem solve in their area

of practice. The situated learning is occurring more

when they are given scenarios or case studies to

practice on with the cadavers. They are given certain

conditions and provided with information to help

them come up with a diagnosis for the “patient” as

well as the best course of treatment. They are given

just enough information to get them started, but it is

up to the resident to research and obtain

supplementary information as needed. Rather than

defining learning in terms of exam performance,

knowledge is assessed by the resident’s ability to

participate in the medical community. In a recent

study done by East Tennessee State University,

researchers examine the relationship between

medical residency models and the transition from the

traditional teacher education, that is, education that is

based heavily in the college classroom, to a residency

model, where perspective teachers spend a significant

amount of time in an elementary classroom. Another

example of this is seen in a study where a situated

learning curriculum was developed for nursing

students studying best practices for gerontology care.

The study aimed at designing and implementing a

situated learning program and determining its

interventional effect on motivation and academic

achievement. The results showed that the program

not only increased the learners’ learning and

motivation, but also improved the students’ attitudes

toward gerontology care (Hossainy, et. al, 2012).

How effective is it? In terms of effectiveness, situated learning has a

positive effect on many aspects of learning. It allows

the learner to have authentic learning experiences, and

it lends itself to a more individualized learning model.

Learners are more likely to retain and successfully

apply information when it is learned within in the

context of the subject matter. One of the critical

features of situated learning is scaffolding instruction.

Scaffolding instruction increases the intrinsic

motivation of the learner by encouraging the

learner and instructor to take part in challenging

activities. When the learner is invested in the activity,

they are more likely to take it upon themselves to

gather information rather than having to rely on the

instructor to supply them with all of the necessary

information. The learner actually wants to solve the

problem, rather than the traditional instructor-

student model, where the student is required to meet

certain objectives without any say so or input on

how they will learn it.


Situated learning theories stress the importance of

embedding instructional authentic, everyday problems.

Learning always occurs in some context. Because this

is a constructivist learning theory, it can be used in a

multitude of different environments and disciplines.

Many classroom teachers in the K-12 setting are

implementing the situated learning model due to the

ability to create authentic learning experiences for

their students. It is important for instructors to allow

the students to explore information on their own.

Although this model is similar to the problem- based

learning (PBL) model, one of the major differences

is the amount of scaffolding present in the situated

learning model.

Although technology does not have to be a staple

resource or this model, there are various

technologies that can be used for this model.

Learners can use the Internet to research

information, there are interactive or game-based

applications that can be used to give the learner a

more personalized experience when learning, orthe

learner can view digital simulations that they would

then have to analyze and extract problems tosolve.


Situated Learning

Scenario Rescue at Boone's Meadow is one of 12 video-

based anchors in the Jasper series designed to

teach mathematical problem finding and problem

solving in traditional classroom environments for

students in grades five and higher. Each of these

adventures provides a very rich environment that

creates multiple opportunities for problem

solving, reasoning, communication, and making

interdisciplinary connections.

Rescue at Boone's Meadow is one of three

adventures that deals with complex trip planning.

The adventure's storyline begins with one of the

primary characters, Larry Peterson, flying his

ultralight into Cumberland City. Larry is teaching

his friend Emily Johnson how to fly. During

Emily's lessons, she (and the viewers) learn much

about the ultralight, including information on

payload, fuel capacity, fuel consumption, speed,

landing requirements, and how the shape of the

wing produces lift. To celebrate Emily's first solo

flight, Larry and Emily join Jasper Woodbury for

dinner at a local restaurant. During dinner, Jasper

reveals that he will soon be taking his annual

fishing trip. He plans to drive to Hilda's gas

station, park his car there, and then hike 15 miles

to his favorite fishing spot in the woods, a remote

location known as Boone's Meadow.

While camping in the Meadow, Jasper finds a bald

eagle that has been wounded by a gunshot. He

radios for help. Emily consults the local

veterinarian, Doc Ramirez, who warns that time is

the critical factor in saving the eagle. Emily

consults a map on the wall that reveals there are no

direct roads leading to Boone's Meadow from

either Cumberland City or Hilda's. She also learns

the distances from the City to Hilda's gas station

and Boone's Meadow are 60 and 65 miles,

respectively. Each plan proposed by the student

must be evaluated with respect to the appropriate

constraints. For example, if the ultralight is used

for the rescue, several constraints, such as payload,

landing requirements, and range of the ultralight,

will determine the feasibility of each leg of a given

route. An additional complication is that payload

and range are interrelated constraints.



Situated Learning

The range of the ultralight will depend upon the

amount of available gas, and the weight of the gas

must be considered when calculating payload.

The video narration ends with the challenge:

``What is the fastest way to rescue the

eagle, and how long will it take?''

At this point, students shift from passive viewing

to active problem solving.

During the problem solving session, students are

put into groups and left on their own to gather

information that might help them solve the

problem. The teacher is only there for support and

to scaffold information during the class time.

There is no right or wrong answer to the problem.

The students are required to present their

proposed solutions to the class and defend their

work.


Situated Learning

References

Abdallah, Mahmoud M. S. (2015, May). Situated language learning: Concept, significance and forms. Paper

presented at the College of Education Young Researchers’ Conference, Assiut, Egypt.

Biswas, G. (1997). The macrocontext: Rescue at Boone’s meadow. Anchored Interactive Learning Environments.

Retrieved from http://www.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/ biswas/Research/ile/aile/node5.html.

Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (1995). Critical characteristics of situated learning: Implications for the

instructional design of multimedia. Paper presented at the ASCILITE 1995, Melbourne, Australia.

Hossainy, F. N., Zare, H., Hormozi, M., Shaghaghi, F., & Kaveh, M. H. (2012). Designing and

implementing a Situated Learning Program and determining its impact on the students’

motivation and learning. Turkish Online Journals of Distance Education, 13(2), 36-47.

Jonassen, D. (2010) Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning

environments. New York, NY: Routledge.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (2008). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York, NY:


McKelvey, B., & Yuan, Y. (2004) Nonlinear dynamics, psychology and life sciences.

Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology & Life Sciences, 8(1).

Morrison, G., Ross. S., and Kemp. J. (2007). Designing effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,

Inc.

Nivens, R.A. (2013). Ready2Teach: Shifts in Teacher Preparation through Residency and Situated

Learning. SRATE Journal, 23(1), 13-17.

http://www.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Virtual Learning Environments

What is it? Virtual Learning Environments are computer-based

environments “that immerse learners in a real-world

experience by mimicking the experience virtually”

(Dabbagh, 2005). VLEs are grounded in several

constructivist theories, including Piaget’s, in which

individuals construct their own knowledge from

experiences. Theoretical underpinnings also include

Lave’s situated learning, where learning takes place

within an authentic setting. Finally, Bruner’s

constructivist learning theory grounds VLEs in their

ability to support the learner in transforming

information, constructing hypotheses, and making

decisions.

While the term VLE has been more broadly to refer to

any computer-based or online learning environment,

such as a Learning Management System, the focus

here is on environments that are constructed and

displayed to simulate real-world interactions.

VLE/LMS in the broader sense have been developed

since the late 1970s with the advent of accessible

computing, but immersive VLEs have only been used

in mainstream education since the mid-2000s.

Specifically, VLEsin the context of this brief have

thesecharacteristics:

The environment appears on a computer

visually as physical space, either 2-D or 3-

D, and incorporates sounds

The learner’s point of view in the space is

first-person, and the learner can move around

the space

The environment responds to learner

actions, suchas approaching a door and the

door willopen

The epistemological orientation of VLEs in this

interpretation is toward constructivism, because VLEs

as a learning environment emphasize the learner’s

discovery of new knowledge while performing

authentic tasks in a relevantcontext.

How does it work? The design elements and features of a VLE provide a

constructivist environment for learning, centered on

real-life tasks in an authentic context. The VLE itself

is purely context because of its place simulation; for

example, there is always a setting for the VLE, such as

a laboratory, or a village, or an operating room. VLEs


TONYA HUTSON

also allow the learner to discover new information

through free exploration, rather than in a

predetermined series of instruction. The only

constraints in the VLE are those appropriate to the

context; for example, if the VLE is constructed as a

village in France for the purpose of language

learning, then the VLE would provide the learner the

capability to hear French speakers as part of the

interactions, but not provide the learner the ability to

fly. Instruction inVLEs should be structured in a way

that facilitates learning using instructional strategies

such as authentic activities, student choice,

coaching/scaffolding, and collaboration. The VLE

provides the learner with authentic tasks that are

supported by scaffolding, such as by a character in

the VLE acting as an intelligent agent. Also, VLEs

can provide social interactions to enhance and

support learning, either by allowing learners to

interact virtually with other actual learners or by

providing a virtual mentor. Generic learning activities

used in VLEs include role-playing, interacting with

simulations, problem solving, and content creation.

Effective learning activities are also customized to the

context; in the example of a language-learning VLE,

ordering and paying for items with appropriate

currency.

Who is doing it? One of the main areas in which VLEs are being

applied is in language learning. In VLE language-

learning implementations such as Second Life,

learners can participate in: voice/text chats, real-life

scenarios such as visiting a doctor, and problem

solving such as calculating the right currency

amount. Another area that VLEs are effectively

transforming is distance learning, since students and

instructors can have a common “place” to interact

regardless of their physical locations. Universities

now offer courses where the VLE is the educational

classroom, where students are “discovering new ways

to study, discuss, create, and express the course

subject under the supervision and support of the

instructor” (Calongne). Another setting in which

VLEs are being applied is in the area of the sciences.

For example, a virtual chemistry lab has been

developed which allows distance students to learn

about the layout and function of apparatus in a

chemistry lab as well as providing procedural

E D I T 7 3 0



information and interactions required for

implementing experiments. In addition, math and

science domains that require computing activity lend

themselves well to a VLE: a statistics course

integrated the statistical computational software with a

constructivist VLE that provided communications,

collaboration, and feedback. Finally, VLEs are being

used in places where access to the real environment

for training is prohibitively expensive or dangerous,

such as nuclear facilities.

How effective is it? Research points to VLEs having several effective

benefits as a pedagogical model. Whitelock, Brna and

Holland have proposed a theoretical framework for

VLEs which includes three dimensions that increase

learning outcomes: “namely ‘representational fidelity’,

‘immediacy of control’and ‘presence’” (Dalgarno and

Lee, 2010). Several tangible effectives of the VLE

pedagogical approach are supported by research. First,

learners “can develop spatial knowledge through

exploring a virtual environment” (Dalgarno, 2002).

Secondly, research has shown that facts learned within

the VLE context are better recalled than facts learned

out of the VLE. In addition, studies have shown that

learner motivation and engagement is increased due to

learner choice and personalization in a VLE. Specific

learner behavior has been attributed to achieving

learning outcomes. Research shows that when students

give a significant number of meaningful feedback

messages to other students, they perform better at non-

rote learning activities: “Students who submit more

feedback messages increase their chances to perform

well” (Wessa, 2011). Other promising areas are

worthy of more study, such as which rules and design

principles should inform the design of the VLE for

associated learning tasks. Finally, there are additional

“learning benefits that may arise from enabling

learners to construct their own virtual places and/or

objects” in VLEs (Dalgarno and Lee, 2010).


Using a VLE has impacts to choices for instructional

design. An instructional designer would recommend

this model in situations that capitalize on the

affordances of the VLE technology: experiential tasks

that would be impractical in the real world, high

degree of personalization due to learner choice,

transfer of knowledge to real situations through

context, collaborative learning, and exploration of the

spatial relationships in the domain. Instructional

characteristics of VLEs include individual and small

groups of learners, providing scaffolding and

procedural information, well-defined problems, and

hypothesis generation. The learning outcomes that are

best supported by VLEs include:

Understanding beyond rote memorization;

engagement in processing information and

findingexplanations

Identify relevant problem-solving

techniques,interpret information, critically

investigate assumptions

The technologies that are most appropriate to

implement a VLE include 3D models and computer

environments, distributed and synchronous

collaboration tools, and tools to support scaffolding

and expert guidance as learners undertake tasks in the

VLE. The pedagogical model of a VLE can solve

learning and training problems in several key areas.

The first area is any domain that would be

inaccessible or hard to visit for the learner, such as a

foreign country or secure location. The second area

that VLEs can support is dangerous or expensive

physicalenvironments.

Finally, VLEs can be particularly effective when:

“thelearning process relies intensively on computer

software … [and] the learning activities involve

social interaction, collaboration, and/or

communications” (Wessa, 2011).



Scenario

Gaining a rich understanding of chemistry is an

instructional problem which requires learners to be able

to link their observations and learnings in the laboratory

to an understanding of what is happening at the

molecular level. Laboratory experiments allow learners

to empirically hypothesis-test their understanding of the

invisible molecular scale.

However, distance chemistry education coursesaren’t

afforded with frequent physical lab time, even in hybrid

settings. At Charles Sturt University, chemistry students

reside at the lab once during the semester and perform all

the chemistry experiments at once. This model reduces

the pedagogical benefits of the experiments, since the

laboratory work is not closely integrated with the theory

they have learned through the semester. In addition,

actual laboratory work is expensive and involves the use

of hazardous materials.

The University created a VLE of a chemistry laboratory

which had the followingcharacteristics:

• Representation of the layout of an actual

laboratory

• Scaffolding and information about

procedures to follow in the laboratory as well

as a chemistry lab manual

• Exploration and manipulation of

laboratoryapparatus, such as glassware and

a Bunsen burner

• Ability for the learner to undertake virtual

experiments and to zoom in on the

molecular level

• Support for distributed learners to work

collaboratively in the lab and under the

supervision of mentors

The chemistry lab VLE has constructivist design

elements including: place context, learner choice,

modelling abstract concepts, situated instructional

resources, remote task collaboration, and scaffolding

tools.



References

Calongne, C. (2008). Frontiers education: Learning in a virtual world. E-Review, 5, 36-48.



Dalgarno, B. (2002). The Potential of 3D virtual learning environments: A constructivist analysis. E-Journal of

Instructional Science & Technology, 5 (2), 1-19.

Dalgarno, B. and Lee, M. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British

Journal of Education Technology, 41 (1), 10-30. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x

Downey, S. (2014). History of the (virtual) worlds. The Journal of Technology Studies, 40(2), 54-66.

Retrieved from https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/v40/v40n2/pdf/downey.pdf

Schunk, D.H. (2011). Introduction to the study of learning. Learning theories: An educational perspective. (6th ed.).

Boston, MA: Pearson Education,Inc.

Wessa, P., Rycker, A. D., & Holliday, I. E. (2011). Content-based VLE designs improve learning efficiency in

constructivist statistics education. Plos ONE, 6(10), 1-15. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025363

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Authentic Learning Activities

What is it? “Authentic learning is a pedagogical approach that

situates learning tasks in the context of future use”

(Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2014, p.401).

Authentic learning activities are meant to enable

learnersto develop a concrete and robust

understanding that is easily transferrable to real-

world situations.

In the 1930s, educational theorists Whitehead and

Dewey peaked interest in realistic contexts for

learning. Sincethen, others have contributed to this

philosophical foundation to stress a “learning by

doing” approach to instruction.

Continuing work in this area lead to the idea of

authentic pedagogy with a focus on learning

activities derived from “real-world” context and

experiences (Herrington, Reeves, & Oliver, 2014).

Authentic learning activities have their origin

closely linked to the theory of situated cognition

and pedagogical model of anchored instruction.

Collins (1991) defines situated cognition as, “the

notion of learning knowledge and skills in contexts

that reflect theway the knowledge will be useful in

real life” (p. 122).

The anchored instruction approach has been

described as enhancing knowledge transfer by

aiding students in distinguishing between

“knowing X” and “thinking to use X” (Bransford,

Vye, Kinzer, & Risko, 1990, p. 391).

How does it work? While authentic learning activities are an integral

part of all constructivist learning environments and

constructivist pedagogical models, ranging from

problem-based learning to situated learning, there

are specific attributes that authentic learning tasks

should adhere to in order to be most effective. As

research on authentic learning has continued, a


JENNIFER KLEINER

framework for authentic learning tasks was

formed. Listed below are the elements of authentic

learning activities as described by Reeves,

Herrington, and Oliver (2002, p. 2):

1. Authentic activities have real-worldrelevance.

2. Authentic activities are ill defined, which

requires students to define the tasks and

subtasks needed to complete the activity.

3. Authentic activities comprise complex tasks

for students to investigate during a sustained

time period.

4. Authentic activities provide the opportunity

for students to use a variety of resources to

examinethe task from different

perspectives. 5. Authentic activities provide

learners with the opportunity to

collaborate.

Authentic activities provide students with the

opportunity to reflect and involve their beliefs and

values.

6. Authentic activities can be integrated and

applied across different subject areas and

extend beyond domain- specific outcomes.

7. Authentic activities are

seamlessly integrated with

assessment.

8. Authentic activities create polished

products valuable in their own right rather

than as preparation for something else.

9. Authentic activities allow competing

solutions and diversity of outcomes.

If instructional designers keep each of these

attributes in mind, then their learning

environments will support constructivist- based

learning and promote, “collaboration, reflection,

problem solving, multiple perspectives, and

hypothesis generation, as well as other exploratory

and dialogic (conversational) learning activities”

(Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 206). The

key among all of these attributes is that authentic

activities promote learning by doing rather than a

focus on content. In order to effectively achieve

this, the instructor role is more of a guide to

“provide scaffolding and create a resource-rich

learning environment to support learning”

(Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 207).

E D I T 7 3 0



Consequently, the student will take ownership of his

own learning as he engages with the content

through direct and relevant interaction.

Who is doing it?

Authentic learning activities are being used by good

instructional designers in almost every, if not all,

industries and for all levels of education. From

middle school through adult learning, authentic

learning tasks are at the core of instructional

strategies that support constructivist-based

pedagogical models, as seen in the image below

(Dabbagh& Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

Authentic learning activities are a central

component of several pedagogical models

implementing these instructional strategies,

including but not limited to: situated learning,

problem-based learning, simulations, and cognitive

apprenticeships. These models are used in countless

industries, ranging from novice financial advisors

engaging in cognitive apprenticeship or hospitality

management students planning and hosting a

community event centered on sustainable tourism

(Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

How effective is it? “Learning methods that are embedded in authentic

situations are not merely useful; they are essential”

(Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989, p. 37).

This is a strong statement but has been defended by

numerous researchers since it was claimed. When

authentic learningactivities are integrated into

design correctly, research has shown that it does

improve concrete learning while lessening the

likelihood that knowledge will become inert or

forgotten. This is because when the content is

situated in a real-world context, the knowledge is

contextualized and is more readily accessible and

able to be applied appropriately when solving

problems in a similar context (Herrington et al.,

2014).

What are the implications for instructional design? If you asked several instructional designers when

would they recommend the use of authentic

learning activities, the answer for many would be

“whenever possible.” While certain instruction

may not always benefit learners if elevated to a

Constructivist learning environment (e.g.,

memorizing times tables), there are countless

concepts that are best learned through authentic

learning activities.

Authentic learning tasks are best for increasing

knowledge transfer and making it easier for

learners to recall and apply knowledge in various

contexts. The realistic context of authentic learning

activities has solved the issue of content being

separated from context and application in

instruction (Herrington et al., 2014). Authentic

learning tasks reduce the difficulty in retrieving

information and allow learners to know how to use

information rather than just know it (Bransford et

al., 1990). This is crucial because the way learners

acquire knowledge in lecture-style classrooms is

not always the same way that knowledge will need

to be applied in every day real life. Jonassen

(2011) states that every day life is filled with ill-

structured decision-making problems, and learners

need to know how to apply knowledge in varied,

ill-structured contexts. Authentic learning activities

can be used to create this realistic, ill-structured

context.

Authentic learning activities can be implemented in

face-to- face, online, or blended learning

environments. An example of a face-to-face

learning environment is listed in the scenario below.



Some examples of online environments include

virtual worlds or cognitive flexibility hypertext

models, among others. While blended learning

environments may utilize a number of constructivist

pedagogical models to implement authentic

learning tasks, including: situated learning, problem-

based learning, cognitive apprenticeship, and more

(Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

Scenario “Take It to a Higher Level – RecoPort” by Hasan

Altalib

RecoPort provides training for employees at financial

institutions. One of its most popular programs is

called, "Take It to a Higher Level." The program is

designed for employees who have worked as assistant

planners at a financial institution, including brokerage

and insurance companies. The goal of the program is

to familiarize assistant planners with the skills that

seasoned financial planners use when preparing an

investment portfolio. A seasoned financial planner

will possess a variety of "soft" skills, such as

communicating, planning, and consensus building.

The seasoned planner will be able to thoroughly

research a wide array of companies and identify the

best performers. S/he will be able to interpret relevant

tax laws, fee structures, and risk factors when

analyzing a business or a mix of financial products.

Trainees are introduced to each case using transcripts

of actual client-planner interviews. They are given

access to a large sample of company and industry

data. They are to develop a research plan and identify

relevant data sources to assist them in making

appropriate investment recommendations to their

client. They will do their research and analysis

individually, however,they will rely on members of

their "financial team" to critique theiranalysis.

Accomplished financial planners are available

throughout the program to scaffold and mentor

students. Each learner (trainee) will present his/her

recommendations to a panel of expert financial

planners who will provide feedback on the quality of

the research, the validity of the analysis, and the depth

of thestudent's communication and planning skills.



Participants will gain competency in the tasks

involved in planning a financial strategy including:

Choosing the best-fit financial product,

when there are over hundreds to choose

from

Identifying the best company, from hundreds of

companies

Assembling the best mix of

financial productsand companies

to meet client goals

Interpreting tax laws that relate to financialproducts

Calculating fee structures and charges associated

withpurchasing

financial products

Assessing the risk factors of various types of

financial products

Determining the investment horizon and

timeframe for each product



References

Bransford, J.D., Vye, N., Kinzer, C., & Risko, V. (1990). Teaching thinking and content knowledge: Toward an

integrated approach. In B.F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction (pp.

381-413). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational

Researcher, 18(1), 32– 42.

Collins, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship and instructional technology. In L. Idol & B. F. Jones (Eds.),

Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications for reform (pp. 121–138). Hillsdale, NJ:

Lawrence Erlbaum.



Herrington, J., Reeves, T.C., & Oliver, R. (2014). Authentic learning environments. In J.M. Specter, M.D. Merril,

J. Elen, & M.J. Bishop (Eds), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp.

401-412). New York, NY: Springer.



Reeves, T. C., Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2002). Authentic activities and online learning. Paper presented at the

2002 Annual International Conference of the Higher Education Research and Development Society of

Australasia (HERDSA), Perth, Western Australia

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Collaboration and Social Negotiation

What is it? Collaboration occurs when two or more people work

together toward a shared goal with a process and a

purpose. Collaboration is a distinct instructional

strategy in which learning is fostered through

collaboration and social negotiation processes in

which two or more people interact to solve problems,

share ideas, explore, reflect, articulate, examine

different perspectives on problems, expand

understanding, cultivate knowledge construction,

negotiation, and reliance on one another.

Collaboration occurs in tandem with social

negotiation, which is the core backbone of

collaboration. Social negotiation is integral to

collaboration as it is the means through which

collaboration can occur between people. It allows

people to benefit from the experience of others,

become fully engaged in their own learning

experience, and acquire and retain information more

meaningfully. Social negotiation describes the human

connection element of collaboration – how it occurs,

when it does not occur, how two or more humans

communicate, exchange information, overcome power

dynamics and obstacles so that collaboration –

working together toward a common goal – can occur.

Collaboration can exist in face-to-face collaborations

as well as in many types of computer-based

collaborations. Collaboration is the ability to share

ideas and thoughts openly alongside another person

and to come up with a combined answer, response

and/or solution for a particular topic or issue. It is the

ability to combine different notions, beliefs and

theories into one concrete explanation and/or solution

that is reflective of the diversity of the group itself.

How does it work? Collaboration and social negotiation is a constructive

process. It is an instructional strategy that is integral to

many pedagogical methods, such as, communities of

practice, knowledge-building communities, situated

learning, and cognitive apprenticeships. These models

are only as effective as the collaboration and social

negotiation is because the collaboration aspect plays

such a key role. Social negotiation is defined to have

seven different aspects:


ELLEN BROWN

mode, object, symmetry, complexity, flexibility,

systematicity, and directness. Interestingly, while

negotiation is a vital dimension of collaboration, it is

not a necessary part of cooperation. Social

negotiation requires people to increase awareness of

others’ perspectives, to reflect upon others’

viewpoints, and to expand understanding. In

collaboration, the focus on the common goal remains

steadfast, even if there are conflicts between

participants.

Who is doing it? Collaboration and social negotiation are

constructivist. Therefore, they are commonly seen in

constructivist learning environments. Collaboration

and social negotiation are ubiquitous throughout

every facet of the human development and learning

cycles – from early childhood education through high

school, university, the workplace, continued

education programs, and professional societies. That

is because collaboration and social negotiation are

integral to pedagogical models such as communities

of practice, knowledge-building communities,

situated learning, and cognitive apprenticeships, to

name a few. While the academic research on

collaboration and social negotiation is fairly recent in

human history, the use of collaboration and social

negotiation goes back in education a millennia.

Teachers have long paired up two or more students to

collaborate on a project or assignment. If there is an

effective organization, somewhere in that

organization effective collaboration and social

negotiation is happening. More and more these days,

businesses are realizing the importance of

collaboration and social negotiation. They are

realizing the return-on-investments on genuinely

impactful learning strategies, and that the learning

outcomes are often better when trainings include

collaboration and social negotiation. Every business

type is engaged at some point in some way in

collaboration and social negotiation – whether that be

the government, non-government organizations,

nonprofits, commercial companies, education

institutions of all kinds, to name a few.

How effective is it? Collaboration and social negotiation as an

instructional strategy is very impactful. Arguably,

E D I T 7 3 0



collaboration and social negotiation are one of the

most powerful forms of learning. The research shows

that with collaboration, learners more effectively

acquire and retain information. Through it, learners

benefit from the experience of the other participants,

learn to overcome arguments and obstacles to keep

focus on the goal, become fully immersed in their own

learning experience, and have higher knowledge

absorption and application of their learning to new

problems, situations, and environments. Applied

across different industries, this leads to improved

processes, return-on-investment, and other key

outcomes. Industries such as medicine, nursing, and

project management have all seen positive

improvements as a result of collaboration and social

negotiation. For example, in medicine, there has been

an increase in patient outcomes as a result of

collaboration and social negotiation.


An instructional designer will look for opportunities

to incorporate collaboration and social negotiation

into their designs as appropriate in order to boost

positive learner engagement and outcomes.

Collaboration can be incorporated across all

pedagogical models and instructional strategies.

Some of those include problem-solving, role-playing,

situated learning, and communities of practice, for

example. Collaboration can also be incorporated into

most learning technologies, such as, asynchronous

and synchronous communication tools, multimedia,

web development tools, social media, groupware,

videoconferencing, and course management software

to name a few. So, there is a wealth of opportunities

and avenues through which instructional designers

can promote collaboration and negotiation into their

designs. Instructional designers should examine the

ongoing research on collaboration and learner

outcomes that results from collaboration across

different learning technologies, pedagogical models

and instructional strategies. Instructional designers

should harness digital technologies and resources to

expand and incorporate collaboration opportunities

and experiences. Instructional designers should also

examine how to create and share digital content and

foster communication flow in any designs in which

they do incorporate collaboration.

Scenario A world-renown radiologist wanted to explore unique

cases with his closest colleagues. So, he set up regular

meeting time with these colleagues who are from all over

the world. Once a month, this small cluster of radiologists

met online, they review new, unique cases, they explore

and debate the implications for these cases. The experts

would show each other their screens, review the images,

and discuss the cases in detail. Both the audio and the

video portions were recorded. After a while, they realized

they had quite a few of these cases. So, they decided to

create a YouTube Channel. Eventually they ended up with

over 50 of these cases. The cases ended up being pulled out

and incorporated into training materials for residents.

Sometimes these world renowned experts would disagree

about findings and implications. In the beginning these

arguments went badly. At one point they ended the

discussion because two of the experts disagreed on when

one should use the word, “display” and when one should

use the word, “presents” when discussing radiology images

and anomalies. The argument went on for an hour. The

other team members parted ways. They came back together

the next time and all participants agreed to keep the focus

on their common goal, no matter what the different

viewpoints. Furthermore, they decided to cultivate the

different viewpoints to see where these differences would

enrich their explorations. Sometimes, the discussions were

quite heated. However, in this collaboration, the different

perspectives were discussed openly and encouraged. The

group did not lose sight of the key common goal – to dive

deep into each case, identify the complexities of each case,

expand understanding of both clinical and technological

applications for their findings and apply those findings to

their own respective institutions.

What they didn’t realize is that their collaborations would

end up being so helpful to their own trainees, their own

institutions and their field as a whole. In fact, these

collaborations, and their ability to specifically negotiate

heir different viewpoints and heated debates, ended up

being the cornerstone of the potency of their collaborations.

In fact, these collaborations ended up advancing their field

quite significantly. They started out wanting to simply

explore and ended up creating a very robust and effective

community of practice because of their ability to collaborate

and negotiate so effectively.



References

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies, and application. Upper Saddle



Computers & Education, 64, 161-174.

Jonassen, D.H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning environments.

New York, NY: Routledge.

Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.),

The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97-115). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Schunk, D.H. (2011). Learning theories: An educational perspective. (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Ziegenfuss, D. H., & Lawler, P. A. (2008). Collaborative course design: Changing the process, acknowledging the

context, and implications for academic development. International Journal for Academic Development,13(3),

151-160.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF


What is it? Collaboration and social negotiation is an instructional

strategy encouraging “interaction between or among

two or more learners to maximize their own and one

another’s learning” (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland,

2005, p. 217). This strategy is derived of two specific

parts: collaboration and social negotiation.

Collaboration is the act of fostering interaction,

conversation, and joining of resources by two or more

learners to complete any number of tasks or activities.

Typically, learners are grouped in a small number to

work on assignments and projects.

Social negotiation encompasses the interrelations and

dialogue between two or more individuals to arrive at

a mutually beneficial outcome or establish social

hierarchies and authority. Social negotiation is the

complex process of interactions through which

community knowledge and learning is achieved

according to social-learning theorists. Learning is a

social process through which we negotiate meaning,

social roles, societal norms, and conventions (Vratulis

& Dobson, 2008).

Isolating the distinct roles each of these play in

learning and human development is extremely

complex and may not be possible. One may argue that

social negotiation is always a component of the

collaborative learning environment, and by the very

nature of people one cannot effectively collaborate

without some degree of social negotiation. Let’s see

how the instructional strategy of collaboration and

social negotiation work.

How does it work? The instructional strategy of collaboration and social

negotiation is rooted in Vygotsky’s work in

establishing that “social interactions are involved in

the process of human development and learning”

(Rojas-Drummond & Mercer, 2003,p.100).

Collaboration and social negotiation build upon the

importance of the social environment and interactions

with others to provide information and opinions which

conflict with their own understanding. It is within the

resolution, or negotiation, of these conflicts in which

knowledge is constructed and learning occurs (Schunk,

2011). By its very nature, collaboration and


JERRY PREWITT

social negotiation require the ideas, opinions, and

information from multiple contributors; some of the

greatest learning may occur when the degree of

differences isgreater.

Social learning theorists believe “that ‘intermental’ (social, interactional) activity forges some of the most important ‘intramental’ (individual) cognitive capabilities, with children’s involvement in joint activities generating new

understandings and ways of thinking” (Rojas-

Drummond & Mercer, 2003,p.100).

Collaboration and social negotiation also requires the

learner to incorporate personal reflection as part of

the learning process. It is through this personal mental

negotiation where new thoughts, opinions, and

understandings emerge. In other words, it is when

new learning occurs. By collaborating and interacting

with those around us, our personal beliefs,

knowledge, and current understanding is challenged.

This instructional strategy requires others.

Who is doing it? Collaboration and social negotiation is used

successfully in a wide variety of learning

environments and with a wide variety of audiences,

including early childhood, K12, Higher Education,

and Industry. It supports the constructivist

pedagogical models including communities of

learning, communities of practice (COP), cognitive

apprenticeships, problem based learning (PBL), and

situated learning (SL). Collaboration and social

negotiation is a commonly implemented dialogic

instructional strategy.

This widely implemented instructional strategy draws

from the basic curiosity that is human nature. One of

the most powerful and substantive questions to be

asked in our interactions with others for learning and

understanding is “why?” This one-word question,

unleashes an immediate state of personal reflection,

even if that personal reflection is somewhat defensive

and self- preserving. However, it is through that

reflection that we begin the process of articulating,

explaining, defending, and refining our understanding

and knowledge to create new understanding.

This instructional strategy is used in K12 through

small groups working through task and problems,

E D I T 7 3 0



resolving everyday challenges, and learning new

information. As demonstrated in the scenario,

Collaboration and social negotiation is used in higher

education and beyond the physical classroom. Industry

and corporate training professionals are discovering

the immense power of applying collaboration and

social negotiation to their training and learning

programs.

Communities of Practice are a prime example of

where using this instructional strategy is natural.

COPs are dependent upon the sharing of personal

experiences, questions for further thought,and

gaining the synergy of community to solve

challenges.

How effective is it? “Social negotiation is an integral part of learning”

(Dabbagh & Dass, 2013). Collaboration and social

negotiation is an effective instructional strategy. As

this strategy relies on aspects which are part of the

human experience, it is successful in a broad range of

applications. As described here, it has been used

successfully in K12, Higher Education, and Industry,

and is a reliable strategy for a number of

Constructivist pedagogies.

Rojas-Drummond and Mercer conclude with research

providing new evidence in support of Vygotsky’s

claim on the influence of “intermental” activity on

“intramental” development (2003), and this is

foundational for the strategy of collaboration and

social negotiation. Other research provides guidelines

based upon findings for university instructors to best

use online discussions in asynchronous online courses

to invoke greater discourse through social negotiation

and collaboration (Gilbert & Dabbagh, 2005).


Collaboration and social negotiation engages

“…students in reflection, articulation, exploration, and

problem solving” (Dabbagh & Bannon-Ritland, 2005,

p. 217). Based upon social learning theory,

collaboration and social negotiation is one of the

broadest reaching instructional strategies which can

effectively be implemented in a wide variety of

courses and audiences. This strategy lends itself to use

in numerous constructivist pedagogies.

Problem-based learning is a pedagogy in which

collaboration and social negotiation can be applied.

This pedagogy requires the use of small groups,

which will share experiences and opinions. The

learner will be able to discuss and debate,

hypothesize and test their solutions. Together the

learners will negotiate and collaborate to develop and

redevelop process to solve the problem.

Collaboration and social negotiation is easily

incorporated into situated learning. This pedagogy

requires that learning take place in a fashion

mimicking the real-world, if not in real-world. This

will only increase the effectiveness of social

negotiation as the collaboration and interactions

amongst the team occurs in the real environment.

This will help the learners create better alternatives

and provide for faster learning.

Communities of Practice use collaboration as a basis

for their learning environments and social negotiation

will enhance the sharing, understanding,

incorporation of new information and opinions into

the shared community knowledge. Learning in COP

is largely social and dependent upon the willingness

of its users to share information to the benefit of the

community.

For technology-based distributed learning

opportunities, collaboration and social negotiation is

a valuable instructional strategy for the instructional

designer. The ability to harness the collaborative

abilities of editing documents by multiple users in

real-time such as Google Docs allows. The numerous

chat, videoconferencing, and collaborative project

spaces available in both the personal, professional,

and academic spaces provide the necessary virtual

environment for successful execution of this

instructional strategy.

These are a few short examples of the implication for

instructional design for the strategy of collaboration

and social negotiation for K12, Higher Education, and

Industry.



Scenario

Collaboration and Social Negotiation: Life of the PM

Project managers in the federal Government are more

than task masters, clerks, and time keepers for an

assigned team. Today’s most effective project

managers are leaders who collaborate, build alliances,

and contribute to the success of their agency’s mission.

However, most current project manager training focuses

on completing steps of a predefined process – knowing

which forms to complete, to what level of detail, and to

whom they are submitted for approval. Yet agencies

across the federal Government struggle with

dysfunctional project teams, gold- plated pet projects,

cost overruns, extended timelines, and a growing

percentage of projects cancelled before delivering the

intended product or service. To address the deficiencies

in developing project managers, Agency X is

implementing a new cohort program which includes a

variety of learning opportunities both face-to-face and

virtually.

The cohort of 20 experienced (5+ years) employees are

new to the role of project manager. For their foundational

learning experience they are divided into project teams of

5 members. In addition to the course facilitator and cohort

coach, the team has access to the same resources available

to all project managers across Agency X, including: the

agency’s online PM toolkit and templates, virtual

project/program management knowledge base, virtual

project/program managers COP, and existing professional

contacts.

An experienced project or program manager is assigned to

each team, and serves the role of the IPT Board (determine

the success/failure or go/no go of the project).

The five day foundation learning experience consists of

each team successfully analyzing, preparing, and

presenting project information for a sample project. Each

team receives project artifacts for three project gate

reviews. The learners work together as a team to define

how they will accomplish the needed tasks within the

prescribed time period, in order to present before and gain

approval from their IPT Board. Each of the three sample

projects concludes with a team reflection, detailed

debrief, and feedback session with the IPT Board, course

facilitator, and cohort coach. Each of the three sample

projects increases in levels of complexity and scope.



References

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies, and application. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Pearson/Merrill/Prentice Hall.


Computers & Education. 64, 161-174. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.007 Gilbert, P. K., & Dabbagh, N. (2005). How to structure online discussions for meaningful discourse: A case study.

British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(1). 5-18.

Rojas-Drummond, S., & Mercer, N. (2003). Chapter 5: Scaffolding the development of effective collaboration and

learning. International Journal of Educational Research. 39, 99-111. doi: 10.1016/S0883-0355(03)00075-2

Schunk, D.H. (2011). Learning theories: An educational perspective. (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Vratulis, V., & Dobson, T. M. (2008). Social negotiations in a wiki-environment: A case study with pre-service teachers.

Educational Media International. 45(4), 285-294.

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Game-Based Learning

What is it? Game-based learning (GBL) is an instructional strategy

unlike any other. Simply stated, it is using a game for

learning.

Traditional GBL attempts to teach a skill or elicit a

certain outcome so it is not usually considered a full-

developed pedagogy. However, this lack of

departmentalization allows GBL to exhibit the

characteristics of nearly any pedagogical model from

situated learning to behaviorism.

An important difference to point out is GBL is not

gamification. Gamification is simply adding game like

elements to traditional problems. Earning points for

completing a regular math problem would be an

example of gamification while balancing creatures to

isolate a Dragon Box to learn algebra is an example of

Game- Based Learning.

While electronic gaming is a fairly new concept of the

last fifty years, learning games is anythingbut

new. Though there are several individuals who

original examined play, Johan Huizinga wrote one of

the first studies about play actually preceding and even

leading to the creation of culture. Ancient games like

Chess, Go, and Shogi were used to practice military

strategies in ancient times as well.

As for the epistemological orientation, games can fit

any type based on how they are designed, but they are

ideally constructivist learning environments. Games

can simulate real world situations, employee

scaffolding to support the players, evaluate the players

for self-analysis, and most importantly, the student

controls learning.

How does it work? Game-based learning can be employed in many

different ways in the classroom so it’s instructional

characteristics can differ greatly. Currently, GBL is

used primarily as a supplement to practice and review

previously taught lessons. GBL usually requires

computers, but beyond that it is very easy to

implement. Students can either do GBL at school or

home, depends on the required software. They usually

require little to no teacher intervention once the


ADAM STRAWN

practice has begun aswell.

With GBL, teachers serve primarily as a guide or

monitor. They can move freely around the room and

assist students with troubleshooting, comprehension,

or staying on task. Students direct their own learning.

In GBL, students’ progress at their individual speeds

and receive scaffolding or enrichment based on their

performance immediately.

In reality, GBL learning activities are limited only by

the creativity of the original creator. While being a

great supplement, GBL can also function as the whole

lesson, practice, and assessment. The essential

features of GBL are engagement,

scaffolding/enrichment, and reward. Teachers can

therefore base their lesson around the game, plan the

lesson with the game included, or use the game to

review the lesson after completion.

Who is doing it? Schools all over the world are beginning to employee

GBL. In Fairfax County Public Schools they have

begun to use a piece of math software called

Dreambox which is a great example of a serious

game. Let’s observe an even more extreme situation

though. There is a public school in New York called

Quest to Learn. It is a junior/senior high school

where everything the students do is done with game-

based learning. Biology is taught through cloning

dinosaurs and creating ecosystems for them.

For watching the videos on the website, it appears

they use a combination of physical game-based

learning, electronic games, and even original game

creation. The school strives on having all of the key

elements of game- based learning as a constructivist

environment listed on their website. Even the website

itself unlocks achievements as you browse it, though

this characteristic is closer related to gamification.

See if you can unlock them all: http://www.q2l.org/

How effective is it? Game-based learning usually elicits great results.

This is because of three big reasons: motivation,

customization, and realization. First, games are

incredibly motivating. Ask any student if they’d

E D I T 7 3 0

http://www.q2l.org/


Game-Based Learning

rather listen to a teacher or play a game for 20 minutes

and nine times out of ten they will pickthe

game. Games stimulate many of the senses and

immerse the player in a sense of wonder. Secondly,

games tailor themselves to the player. For example, a

math problem like 2+3 has only one answer. However,

if a game asks you how you can arrange stones to

create 5, a huge amount of variation can be created: 1

and 4, 7 remove 2, etc. While the players are exploring

this deep problems, the game is constantly assessing

them and progressing at a speed which suits the

player’s level. Therefore the learner never feels bored

or overwhelmed. Lastly, games are not easy. They

present a kind of difficult fun that keeps challenging

the learner. But a mistake doesn’t result in a

demotivating red mark. Instead the game can instantly

review what you have missed and it becomes a

teachable moment. It is easy to see how GBL

improves learning with motivating activities, increases

problem solving skills with open-ended problems, and

improves critical thinking skills by presenting a

constant challenge that meets the learner’s level. On

top of all this, it uses an ongoing assessment method to

give instant feedback rather than giving an arbitrary

percentage on a post test.


The full potential of game-based learning has yet to be

found, but I believe it to be one of the most engaging

methods on the market. It is easy to implement,

personalized, and incredibly motivating. The

implications are huge because not only can you tailor

an education to fit the student, but you can teach

information formally that was not available before.

GBL can fit any learner, but it shines the best when

used with students who feel lost in the traditional

classroom. One size fits all education leaves several

students behind, many of whom think they are just no

good at learning. GBL can empower these students

and show them how anyone can learn and a speed

which is appropriate to them. It can be used to teach

any skill and they can be used on technology regularly

owned by schools and families such as computer and

smartphones. The main learning problem it solves is

making sure every learner has an equal opportunity to

succeed and no one falls through the cracks.

Scenario X-sensei is a sixth grade teacher in Fairfax County. His

school only have enough money for a half time teacher so

he has to teach a class of 36 sixth grade students at once.

On top of this, he is also a Japanese immersion teacher

meaning he has to teach math entirely in Japanese with no

extra time for language skills. Finally, because he teaches

Japanese immersion, the advanced math students

shouldn’t be learning in the English room, so he is tasked

with teaching regular and advanced math in the same

hour block. So to sum up the whole situation, he has 36

students with different math skill levels, language skill

levels, and completely different math classes as well. Any

sane teacher would have run for the hills but X-sensei is

different; he rolls up his sleeves and begins planning.

To combat all the different levels and types of students

in his classroom X-sensei chooses to use game-based

learning in a station environment. He divides the class

into 3 groups and create 3 stations in his room: Learning,

Reviewing, and Exploring. At the learning station he

teaches his students about the new topic and vocabulary

in Japanese. In the review section students can practice

math facts on websites like Khan Academy, a wonderful

gamification website, and paper worksheets. In the

exploration center, students can play serious math games

like 21, Cribbage, and Equate along with electronic

devices such as iPads and laptops for the students to play

learning games like DragonBox. He even teaches them

how to create their own serious games in PowerPoint,

Google Slides, and Scratch and the number of games

continued to grow.

Even with all of the odds stacked against him, X-sensei

has a great year and all of his students pass the SOLs

with flying colors. Most of all, his students had a great

time and they all loved learning. Thanks game-based

learning!


Game-Based Learning

References

Carr, J. (2012). Does math achievement h'APP'en when iPads and game-based learning are incorporated into

fifth-grade mathematics instruction? Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 11,

269-286.

DiCerbo, K. E. (2014). Game-based assessment of persistence. Educational Technology & Society. 17(1), 17-

28.

Hess, T., & Gunter, G. (2013). Serious game-based and nongame-based online courses: Learning experiences

and outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(3), 372-385.

Huizinga, J. (1949). Homo Ludens Ils 86. Retrieved fromhttps://books.google.com.

Ku, O., Chen, S. Y., Wu, D. H., Lao, A. C., & Chan, T. W. (2014). The effects of game-based learning on

mathematical confidence and performance: High ability vs. low ability. Journal of Educational

Technology & Society, 17(3).

Marino, M., Becht, K., Vasquez, E., Gallup, J., Basham, J., & Gallegos, B. (2014). Enhancing secondary science content accessibility with video games. TEACHING

Exceptional Children, 47(1), 27-34.

Rice, J. W. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher

Education, 15(1), 87 100.

Woo, J. C. (2014). Digital game-based learning supports student motivation, cognitive success, and

performance outcomes. Educational Technology & Society, 17(3),291-307.

https://books.google.com/

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Role Playing

What is it? Role-play reserves a unique place in the pantheon of

educational strategies in that its application to

education was secondary. The first documented

application of role-play can be traced back to a

physician named Joseph Marino’s “Theater of

Spontaneity” founded in 1921. Marino observed the

therapeutic nature that improvisational theater had on

actors. As a result upon his immigration to American

in 1925, he began developing a type of therapy that he

called “psychodrama,” which later became

“sociodrama” due to its application to social problems.

In the exercise people are instructed to assume a role

given a specific context and scenario. The “actors”

choose the direction that the scene will take much like

in improvisational theater. It wasn’t until Marino

realized that the sociodrama could be adapted to help

people reflect on the various roles they play in their

lives that the term “role-play” was coined (Blatner,

2009).

Role-play remained a popular technique in

psychological and behavioral science circles

throughout the last century, whereas in education it

was relegated to second tier status despite being

present in various forms in the classroom since the

1940’s (Blatner, 2009). It was with the emergence of

constructivist learning environments that role-play

became a more popular instructional classroom

strategy. Role-play is ideal for such environments due

to its focus on the affective and cognitive domains that

stress the interplay between emotions and experience.

It is at this juncture that many ill-defined problems

exists allowing students to explore multiple

perspectives and explore problems. As a learning

strategy they fall under exploratory strategies, making

them applicable to all instructional models such as

situated learning, problem-based learning, cognitive

apprenticeship, communities of practice, microworlds,

simulations, etc. It is through this exploration that

knowledge is acquired (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland,

2005, p. 213-214).

How does it work? Many different models for designing an effective role-

play have been suggested over the years. Dr. Carolyn


DUSTIN NORWOOD

Shaw at Wichita State has suggested a model that

includes five steps. The first step is to select a topic

and develop the objectives for the role- play. Next,

the designer should determine the duration of the

exercise. Once the groundwork is laid, the focus

should be on designing the scenario to ensure that

there is the maximum amount of collaboration and

cooperation between learners(Shaw, 2010). After all,

as an exploratory strategy in a constructivist learning

environment, social interaction between learners

should be emphasized (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland,

2005, p. 213). The designer can do so by

emphasizing the interplay between the various roles

in the scenario (Shaw, 2010).

As with any constructivist learning strategy, a key

part is setting the role-play in a relevant, real-world

context. Therefore, the next and most important step

is creating this context. Shaw (2010) states that the

context can be fictional, but it should still remain

relevant to the learners. The context should be framed

by specific information to help guide the learners or

help them understand the focus of the scenario.

This ensures the focus is on the interaction and not

the setup of the scenario. Finally, the designer should

decide on the timeline or phases of the exercise since

role-plays can go on indefinitely or veer off topic

easily, especially if the learners are engaged.

During the role-play, the instructor's role is to setup

and assign the roles. He/she should then allow the

role-play to proceed uninterrupted unless it is

necessary stop it for time considerations or to direct

the role-play back on topic. The most important role

of the instructor is to be a facilitator of the debriefing

after the role-play has concluded. He/she should ask

reflective questions to the learners to allow deeper

analysis of what occurred (Shaw, 2010).

Who is doing it?

Role-play is a widely used strategy. As stated earlier,

it found its earliest uses in the fields of psychology

and social sciences. However, the application has

become much broader over the years. One area of

learning that has found role-play particularly useful is

language learning. Role-play fulfills the need of

students to engage in conversation in a wide variety

of highly contextualized settings before using the

language in the real world. It offers advantages over

E D I T 7 3 0


Role Playing

other types of instructional strategies in that role- play

exercises are directly transferable to use of the

language while other strategies require intermediary

steps before transfer occurs (Maxwell, 1997).

It is also becoming increasingly popular in

microworlds, virtual learning environments,

simulations, and serious games (Dabbagh &

Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 226). In these

instructional models, it is very useful for the student

to assume a defined role and engage with others

who have assumed different roles to explore

problems from multiple perspectives. Roleplaying

meshes with these models very well since assuming

a role is an inherent part of the learning experience.

For example, in order for a game to be effective, the

learner must be immersed in a role and make

decisions as he/she believes a person in a similar

role would. Models that fail to immerse the learner

in the designed role and context will most likely not

achieve their objectives.


Of course with any instructional strategy, the question

is how effective is it. It depends on if it was designed

and implemented correctly and whether it was

properly aligned with the instructional model. Many

studies suggest that role-play can have a significant

impact on learning. In a study examining the use of

role-plays in a construction management course, it was

found that students who participated in a role-play

during the course were more likely to score higher on

nine out of ten questions on a test using a pre/post test

measurement (Bhattacharjee, 2014).

Role-play can also be effective using online

technology. In a study on the effectiveness of role-

plays designed for an online marketing course, it was

found that the role-plays outrated traditional methods

of online instruction in areas such as applying theory

to practice, developing problem solving skills, and

encouraging personal responsibility for learning, all of

which link directly with an effective constructivist

learning environment. Although, the researchers admit

that more research needs to be conducted in the area

and that designing such role-plays can be resource

intensive, they reiterate that the role-plays

implemented resulted in greater student interaction and

learning than the more traditional methods of reading

and discussing texts and cases. Through actually

experiencing the issues involved and assuming the role

on an Internet marketer, learners were able to get a

better understand of the tasks involved (Miller,

2008).


Even though role-plays have been proven to be

effective, they would not be appropriate to apply in

all situations. Role-plays are best used when it is

necessary to create a safe environment in which

learners can bring their prior experience and apply it

to a real-world role in order to gain greater ownership

over the learning and to apply new knowledge and

skills in an ill- defined, complex scenario. They

would be ideal when it is necessary for the learner to

practice the new skills in the actual context in which

they would be expected to apply the skills.

The goal is that the learner will be able to transfer the

learning when he/she encounters the same or similar

scenario in real life. Some common examples of these

applications in a traditional learning environment are

teaching medical school students to interact with

patients, mock trials for attorneys, or training

employees to deal with customers over the phone in a

call center.

Role-plays lend them self-integration with many

learning technologies, especially if the technology

allows the user to assume a role in order to

accomplish the learning objectives. Some of the

applications of role-playing using technology mimic

its traditional application through the use of video

conferencing, online chats, or more recently MOOs

or MUDs (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p.

226). Using these platforms, learners participate in

traditional role-plays where they negotiate complex

topics with other learners. However, more recently

role-plays are increasingly being used to place the

user in the defined role in a serious games and ask

him/her to apply new knowledge and skills to

accomplish the game's goals. In these types of role-

plays, non- player characters (NPCs) often replace

the instructor or other learner in assuming various

roles, making it possible for the learner to engage

with various other characters without the need for

another person (Donovan, 2012).. Still, it is important

that some sort of debriefing or other reflection of the

learning is present for greater effectiveness.


Role Playing

As technology continues to evolve, so will role-plays.

However, at their core the design and application will

probably remain consistent. The learner will be

required to assume some role and through encounters

with another learner, NPC, or instructor, navigate the

complexities of a specific situation while acquiring

relevant knowledge and skills necessary for real-world

application. Whenever there is a subject that lends

itself to exploration through practice, role-play will

always present itself as a viable learning strategy for

designers to employ.

Scenario

XYZ Corporation has recently hired a group of

employees as sales staff for its retail stores in shopping

malls throughout the country. XYZ specializes in high-

end consumer electronics and computing hardware.

Their customers are very loyal and often times have a

high knowledge of XYZ products. Given that XYZ

products are more expensive than competitors and that

newer versions of the products are available at regular

release intervals, sales to existing customers can be

difficult. Furthermore, sales to new customers are

challenging due to competitor brand loyalty. As a result

XYZ has designed highly contextualized role-plays

based on actual customer types to allow for new sales

staff to practice selling. The customers ask questions

similar to those of actual customers, and the staffs are

expected to answer while trying to convince the

instructor playing the role of the customer to purchase a

new product or upgrade.


Role Playing

References

Bhattacharjee, S. (2014, August). Effectiveness of role-playing as a pedagogical approach in construction education.

Paper presented at 50th ASC Annual International Conference, Washington, D.C.

Blatner, A. (2009, October 18). Role playing in education. Retrieved from

http://www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/rlplayedu.htm

Dabbagh, N., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2005). Online learning: Concepts, strategies, and application. Upper Saddle River

N.J.: Pearson, Merrill, Prentice Hall.

Donovan, L. (2012, December 1). The use of serious games in the corporate sector. Retrieved from

http://www.learnovatecentre.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/06/Use_of_Serious_Games_in_the_Corporate_Sector_

PRINT_FINAL.pdf

Maxwell, C. (1997, October). Role play and foreign language learning. Paper presented at 23rd Annual

Meeting of the Japan Association of Language Teachers, Hamamatsu, Japan.

Miller, R. (2008). A preliminary review of online role-plays as a tool for experiential learning in marketing

education. In C. Bonk, M. Lee & T. Reynolds (Eds.), Proceedings of E-Learn: World Conference on E-

Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2008 (p. 144-149). Chesapeake,

VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).

Shaw, Carolyn M. (2010). Designing and using simulations and role-play exercises. In R.A.

Denemark (Ed.), The International Studies Encyclopedia. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell

Publishing. Retrieved from

http://webs.wichita.edu/depttools/depttoolsmemberfiles/carolynshaw/Shaw%20in%2

0Compendium.pdf

http://www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/rlplayedu.htm

http://www.learnovatecentre.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/06/Use_of_Serious_Games_in_the_Corporate_Sector_PRINT_FINA



http://webs.wichita.edu/depttools/depttoolsmemberfiles/carolynshaw/Shaw%20in%20Compendium.pdf



CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Scaffolding

What is it? In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of

instructional techniques used to move students

progressively toward stronger understanding and,

ultimately, greater independence in the learning

process. The term itself offers the relevant descriptive

metaphor: teachers provide successive levels of

temporary support that help students reach higher

levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they

would not be able to achieve without assistance. Like

physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are

incrementally removed when they are no longer

needed, and the teacher gradually shifts more

responsibility over the learning process to the student.

Scaffolding is considered to be an essential element of

effective teaching, and all teachers—to a greater or

lesser extent—almost certainly use various forms of

instructional scaffolding in their teaching. In addition,

scaffolding is often used to bridge learning gaps—i.e.,

the difference between what students have learned and

what they are expected to know and be able to do at a

certain point in their education. A construct is that

critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's

concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

Zone of proximal development is that field between

what a learner can do by himself and what can be

achieved with the support of a knowledgeable peer or

instructor (Ellis & Worthington, 1994). Instructional

Scaffolding strategies work within the (ZPD) to

initially support a student’s learning and then as

mastery is achieved the supports are gradually

removed allowing the student to take full control of his

or herlearning.

How does it work? According to Ginat (2009), scaffolding includes the

following: (1) identification of what the student can do,

(2) establishment of shared goals, (3) provision of

ongoing assessment of learning needs, (4) provision of

individualized assistance, (5) reflection on activities and

identification of what worked well and what requires

improvement, and (6) inclusion of opportunities for

internalization and generalization of the learning. Some

of the best Instructional Scaffolding strategies include the

following:

Activating prior knowledge

Offering a motivational context to


DOUG BALDWIN

pique student interest or curiosity in the

subject at hand

Showing students an example of the desired

outcome before they complete the task

Using verbal cues to prompt studentanswers

Facilitating student engagement and participation Using graphic organizers to offer a

visual framework for assimilating

new information

Guiding the students in making predictions

for what they expect will occur in a story,

experiment, or other course ofaction

Modeling an activity for the students

before they are asked to complete the same

or similar activity

Offering hints or partial solutions to

problems

Breaking a complex task into easier, more

"doable" stepsto facilitate student

achievement

Modeling the thought process for students

through "think aloud" talk

Teaching key vocabulary terms beforereading

Displaying a historical timeline to offer a

context for learning

Teaching students chants or mnemonic

devices toease memorization of key facts or

procedures

Asking questions while reading to

encourage deeper investigation of

concepts

Who is doing it? Instructional Scaffolding is widely considered to be

an essential element of effective teaching. Teachers

should remember several important facts about

instructional scaffolding: Scaffolding is most useful

for teaching new tasks or strategies with multiple

steps. Any student at any grade level, including high

school, can benefit from instructional scaffolding.

Scaffolding can be applied to any academic task. For

example, if students are not at the reading level

required to understand a text being taught in a course,

the teacher might use instructional scaffolding to

incrementally improve their reading ability until they

can read the required text independently and without

assistance. One of the main goals of scaffolding is to

reduce the negative emotions and self-perceptions

that students may experience when they get

E D I T 7 3 0


Scaffolding

frustrated, intimidated, or discouraged when

attempting a difficult task without the assistance,

direction, or understanding they need to complete it.

Although a teacher may scaffold instruction in a

number of ways, it is important to note that there are

two critical elements to keep in mind when using

instructional scaffolding: Modeling: Throughout the

learning process, students should be able to watch

their teacher model, or demonstrate, each step in the

task or strategy multiple times. Such modeling and

repetition allow students to understand both how to

perform each step and why each step is important.

Knowing how and why leads to students’ successful

performance of the task or strategy. Practice: Students,

either individually or as a group, must have the

opportunity to work collaboratively with the teacher to

practice the task or thestrategy.


Instructional Scaffolding Stratagems have been

studied for the last several decades and have generally

proven effective in helping students achieve their

educational objectives. Various instructional strategies

have been suggested for developing and scaffolding

critical thinkingskills. Scaffolding—the process by

which an expert supports a learner in executing a

complex task—has proven successful in a variety of

environments, for a variety of learning goals, and for

diverse student populations (Hogan & Pressley, 1997;

Palincsar, 1986; Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976).

Because scaffolding is such a dynamic intervention

finely tuned to the learner’s ongoing progress, the

support given by theteacher during scaffolding

strongly depends upon the characteristics of the

situation like the type of task (e.g., well-structured

versus ill- structured) and the responses of the student

(Janrkeke, 2010). It is important to note that every

student is different and can and will react to

Instructional Scaffolding differently. In General, the

literature suggests that Scaffolding can produce higher

effect sizes when studied in authentic settings (e.g.,

classroom-based problem-based learning) in which

there are more threats to internal and external validity.

Thus, educators can have confidence in scaffolding's

efficacy even when studies suffered from threats to

internal or external validity. Scaffolding with no

fading produced larger effects than scaffolding with

fixed fading. This reinforces the role of teachers in

supporting metacognition and transfer of responsibility

(Belland, Walker, Olsen, & Leary 2015). With

Instructional Scaffolding seen as an essential element

in effective teaching let’s take a look at some of the

implications of using Instructional Scaffolding in

Instructional Design.


There are no hard-and-fast rules for how to scaffold

instruction. In fact, how a teacher chooses to go about

it will depend on the task or strategy in question and

the students’ needs. The teacher should use common

sense, teaching experience, and the students’ needs to

assess what type of scaffolding or support will be

required by the students. In order to incorporate

scaffolding throughout the lesson, teachers may find

the framework outlined by Ellis & Larkin (1998)

helpful. The teacher does it - In other words, the

teacher models how to perform a new or difficult

task, such as how to use a graphic organizer. For

example, the teacher may have a partially completed

graphic organizer on an overhead transparency and

"think aloud" as he or she describes how the graphic

organizer illustrates the relationships among the

information contained on it. The class does it - The

teacher and students work together to perform the

task. For example, the students may suggest

information to be added to the graphic organizer. As

the teacher writes the suggestions on the

transparency, students fill in their own copies of the

organizer. The group does it - Students work with a

partner or a small cooperative group to complete a

graphic organizer (i.e., either a partially completed or

a blank one). The individual does it - This is the

independent practice stage where individual students

can demonstrate their task mastery (e.g., successfully

completing a graphic organizer to demonstrate

appropriate relationships among information) and

receive the necessary practice to help them to

perform the task automatically and quickly.

Guidelines for Implementing Scaffolding. The

following points can be used as guidelines when

implementing instructional scaffolding (adapted from

Hogan and Pressley, 1997).

Select suitable tasks that match curriculum

goals, course learning objectives and

students’ needs.

Allow students to help create instructional

goals (this can increase students’

motivation and their commitment to

learning).


Scaffolding

Consider students’ backgrounds and prior

knowledge to assess their progress –

material that is too easy will quickly bore

students and reduce motivation. On the

other hand, material that is too difficult can

turn off students’ interestlevels).

Use a variety of supports as students’

progress through a task (e.g., prompts,

questions, hints, stories, models, visual

scaffolding―including pointing,

representational gestures, diagrams, and

other methods of highlighting visual

information.

Provide encouragement and praise as well

as ask questions and have students explain

their progress to help them stay focused on

the goal.

Monitor student progress through feedback

(in addition to instructor feedback, have

students summarize what they have

accomplished so they are aware of their

progress and what they have yet to

complete).

Create a welcoming, safe, and supportive

learning environment that encourages

students to take risks and try alternatives

(everyone should feel comfortable

expressing their thoughts without fear of

negative responses).

Help students become less dependent on

instructional supports as they work on tasks

and encourage them to practice the task

indifferent contexts.

Scenario Third grade students in Mrs. Maddox’s class have been studying about different types of communities.

Throughout this unit, students have focused on distinguishing between rural, urban and suburban communities.

As a culminating activity for this unit on types of

communities, the students are going to prepare some

type of individually selected project demonstrating their

knowledge of urban, suburban and rural communities.

Mrs. Maddox makes suggestions as to the types of

projects students might consider. Some choose to write

and illustrate a book, others write and perform a play,

and still others film a video using footage taken from

their trip. One student focuses on interviewing residents

of each community.

Patrick, the computer whiz of the class, decides to

prepare a PowerPoint presentation which will

incorporate digital pictures taken on the field trip and of

the rural areas surrounding the school community.

He has successfully written the text for his slides but has

been unable to insert the digital pictures from his disk.

Mrs. Maddox notices that Patrick is experiencing

frustration with his inability to insert the pictures. She

approaches to offer help, not to complete the task for

Patrick, but rather to provide support and to help him

achieve his objective on his own.

Mrs. Maddox thinks aloud as she offers help: “Let’s see. I

want to insert a picture into the slide from the disk. I

need to go to the toolbar at the top and select 'insert'

since that’s what I want to do. And since it’s a picture

that I want to insert, I’ll select 'picture'. Now I have to

tell the computer where to find the picture I want. Since

the picture is on a disk, I’ll select ‘from file’. Then I’ll click 'insert' and viola`! My picture is there. Now all I

have to do is save it”. As Mrs. Maddox talks through the

steps, Patrick carefully follows her prompts and

completes each step. He beams as he sees the selected

picture on his slide. Mrs. Maddox then teaches Patrick a

chant she has composed that will assist him with the

steps: “In-sert a picture from a file; locate the file and se-

lect the pic; click to in-sert and save it, quick!” She

watches as Patrick goes through the steps, questioning

him with leading questions when he hesitates, and listens

while he quietly says the chant to himself to perform the

task. Again, he beams with excitement as the slide

displays the selected picture.

Mrs. Maddox moves away from the computer and allows

Patrick to insert the next picture on his own.



Scaffolding

Seeing that he is successful, she moves on to assist another

student. Later, when another student, Melissa, needs

assistance with inserting a picture to a PowerPoint slide,

Mrs. Maddox asks Patrick to be a peer tutor to her.

He further expands his learning by explaining the steps to

Melissa and by teaching her the same chant he used to

complete the steps to insert a picture in the PowerPoint

slide. Through her support and facilitation, Mrs. Maddox

helped Patrick master a skill and achieve independence

through carefully designed instruction called scaffolding

(Lipscomb, Swanson, & West, 2004).


Scaffolding

References

Belland, B. R., Walker, A. E., Olsen, M. W., & Leary, H. (2015). A pilot meta-analysis of computer-based scaffolding in

STEM education. Educational Technology & Society, 18 (1), 183–197.

Ellis, E., & Worthington, L. (1994). Research synthesis on effective teaching principles and the design of quality

tools for educators. University of Oregon. Retrieved October 25, 2013, from

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/ellisressynth.pdf

Ellis, E. S., & Larkin, M. J. (1998). Strategic instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.),

Learning about learning disabilities (2nd ed., 585-656). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Ginat, D. (2009). Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education

New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. doi:10.1145/1562877.1562915

Hogan, K., & Pressley, M. (1997). Scaffolding scientific competencies within classroom communities of inquiry. In K.

Hogan & M. Pressley (Eds.), Scaffolding student learning: Instructional approaches and issues, (pp. 74-107).

Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Lipscomb, L., Swanson, J., West, A. (2004). Scaffolding. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning,

teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 27, 2015, from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/ .

Palincsar, A. S. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing scaffolded instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21,73-98.

Van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in teacher–student interaction: A decade of

research published online. Educational Psychology Review, 22,271–296. doi: 10.1007/s10648-010-

9127-6

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology &

Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 17(2), 89-100.

http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/ellisressynth.pdf

http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/

CLE PEDAGOGY BRIEF

Scaffolding

What is it? The term scaffolding in education has evolved from its

original meaning to a tool or a technique used by a

teacher to support a learner so that he or she can

complete their learning goals. Scaffolding theory was

first introduced in the late 1950s by David Wood,

Jerome Bruner and Gail Ross, who defined it as a

"process that enables a child or novice to solve a

problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would

be beyond his unassisted efforts. This scaffolding

consists essentially of the adult "controlling" those

elements of the task that are initially beyond the

learner's capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate

upon and complete only those elements that are within

his range of competence" (Wood, 1978). The notion of

scaffolding was influenced by Lev Vygotsky's "Zone

of Proximal Development". According to Lev the Zone

of Proximal Development is the difference in the level

of a student's current development, in other words the

task that he or she can solve by themselves and the level

of their potential development, that they are able to

reach with the help of their teacher or by working

together with other students (Vigotsky, 1978).

Scaffolding is an instructional strategy that embodies

the instructional characteristics and implications of

constructivist- based pedagogical models (Dabbagh,

2005).

How does it work? (Yelland, 2007). First, the interaction has to be

collaborative where the learner's intentions are the aim.

Second, it has to happen within the learner’s zone of

proximal development. Third, the scaffold is gradually

withdrawn from the process to allow learners to

complete a task that they wouldn't have been able to

complete on their own (Yelland, 2007). The final goal

is for the learner to become independent in the

completion of the task. The role of the teacher changes

from an expert to a tutor or a coach. Teachers draw the

learner's attention, select appropriate tasks, and

motivate the learners. Tutors "provide a bridge

between a learner's existing knowledge and skills and

the demands of the new task", support the learner's

problem solving, and eventually transfer the

responsibility of learning to the learner (Wood, 1996).

The usage of scaffolds can be very different. In a


ANNA BUTSAY

traditional classroom scaffolding can be done through

coaching either by a teacher or another student. It can

also be done through modeling, explaining and by

using various resources and tools. In online learning

environments it can be supported through the use of

modern tools such as links, search engines, chats,

discussions, etc. (Dabbagh, 2003).

Who is doing it? Scaffolding is used in many traditional classroom

environments in subject areas such as foreign

language, reading, writing, mathematics, science,

technology etc. For example, in a Fairfax County (VA)

science classroom a teacher uses scaffolding to lead

students through a complex physics problem, by

asking questions so students can find their own errors

and providing feedback on their work. At the Foreign

Service Institute (VA) a foreign language Instructor

models a thinking aloud practice of creating a sentence

in a foreign language to help her students understand

the process of thinking in another language at the

beginning of learning a new language.

With the rapid development of technology scaffolding

is now used in online learning environments as well.

Scaffolding is highly used in problem-based learning

and inquiry learning. For example, in the medical field

a teacher encouraged students to explain their thinking

to help them build explanations or identify limits of

theirthinking.

How effective is it? Scaffolding is a very effective instructional strategy.

It creates a supportive learning environment where the

teacher no longer plays the role of a content-expert but

more of a tutor or mentor. Students also take a more

active role in the learning process, are free to provide

feedback and guidance for their peers and take on the

responsibility for their own learning. It is very

beneficial for students to work in pairs with someone

who has a different perspective or is at a different level.

A conflict or an argument can push the student to

question his thinking and to move to a higher level of

thinking.

Online learning environments are opening new

horizons for the implementation of scaffolding. If

before scaffolding would be hard to achieve in a large

E D I T 7 3 0


Scaffolding

class, now the technology allows "teachers to assume

supportive and facilitative roles due to their

comprehensive and integrative nature, user-

friendliness, and embedded user support systems"

(Dabbagh, 2003).

Scaffolding is not only an effective strategy to teach

well- structured skills, but is also beneficial to higher-

level cognitive strategies, such as "comprehension and

interpretation of text, scientific processes, and

mathematical problem solving" (Rosenshine, 1992).


Scaffolding is a highly effective instructional strategy

that is an integral part of any constructivist learning

environment. Through scaffolds higher level of student

achievement can be achieved. It has found diverse use

in traditional classrooms and in many subject areas.

Scaffolding is extremely necessary to support learners

ill-structured problem-solving.

Recent technological advances and the development of

online learning environments challenge the traditional

use of scaffolding. It is now more important than ever

to study scaffolding and to build online learning

environments that make effective use of the

instructional strategy. However, this area has still a lot

of room for research and for ideas on designing

effective 21st century learning environments.

Creating an online course by uploading materials is no

longer sufficient. Instructional designers are now faced

with a complicated task of defining the sequence of

instructional events, chunking material appropriately,

building scaffolds within the course. Scaffolding that

takes place in a traditional classroom (when the teacher

explains a task to students or models it for them) has to

be replaced in the online environment with written

procedures, videos, etc. Instructional designers now also

deal with instructional scaffolding. They set up guides

for learners to guide their learning and to have the

freedom to conduct self-directed learning. An online

course has to have wikis (a collaborative learning

environment), synchronous and asynchronous

communication tools so learners can share ideas,

discuss problems and conduct group work. Instructional

designers have to scaffold question prompts, peer

review mechanism, dynamic feedback within the course

in order for the online learning environment to be

successful.

Scaffolding in online learning environment still

presents many challenges for instructional designers.

One of the main challenges is the measurements of the

optimal level of scaffolding necessary for each

individual learner. This has to take into consideration

prior knowledge and the learner's zone of proximal

development. In the field of instructional design of

online learning environments creating a scaffolding

system that will provide timely scaffolding in the

needed amount for the given learner and fade away

when it is unnecessary is a problem that needs to be

solved soon to accommodate the plethora of online

learners and the growing tendency for learning to take

place in a self-paced onlinemanner.

Scenario

Natasha Ivanova is a Russian teacher at a local

university in New York. She teaches Russian to different

students whose first language is mainly English. Russian

presents many difficulties for her students and thus she

tries to employ different techniques in class to break

down tasks for students and to help them gain

confidence and fluency so they can use even the most

challenging material.

Today they are learning a new case - the Prepositional

Case. One of the functions of the Prepositional Case is

location. Thus, by using this case the students will be

able to say where they are, where they lived, where

something is located and so on. Before asking the

students to produce sentences using the case Natasha

scaffolds the task for them. They first review the nouns

for different places in Russian. She opens an exercise on

the Smart Board where a picture is shown and students

take turns coming up to the board and choosing the right

name for each picture on the screen. After students

reviewed the names of various places Natasha plays a

quick game with them. She says a noun to a student and

the student replies by putting the noun in the

Prepositional case (i.e., museum - in a museum). Then,

Natasha hands out graphic organizers to her students

with a blank space for each day of the week and a place.



Scaffolding

At the top of the handout there is a table with the case

endings for the Prepositional Case.

She gives students a minute to fill out the handout and

then asks students to ask each other where they were

last week and tells them that after they complete this

activity that they will share the information they

gathered with their class.

Students complete the activity and in a matter of 15

minutes are able to produce grammatically correct

sentences to their class with an adequate amount of

fluency. Natasha records her students’ speech on her

mobile device. She makes note of their mistakes and

emails the recording to her students and asks that for

homework they listen to the recording and rerecord

their sentences again correcting the mistakes they had

made.

Natasha is an experienced teacher who knows that by

scaffolding a new task for her students she actually

helps them learn and use the material efficiently. She

also employs technology adequately to make her lessons

engaging for the new generation of students.


Scaffolding

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