Art 1100

Joan Jonas“They Come to Us without a Word”U.S. Pavilion, Venice Biennale, 2015

Our Goal: To understand how the the culture of the past influences the culture of the present so that you can better understand how your world around you is shaping who you are.

Chapter 14 Ancient Mediterranean Worlds

Major Cultures:

Mesopotamia

Egypt

GreeceRome

Chapter 11: SculptureTermsSculpture “In the round”.or “in relief ” -high, low and sunken.

Additive: Modeling & Casting Subtractive: Carving

Types of Figural PosesMonolithContrapposto

Chapter 13: ArchitectureTermsStacking and Piling

i.e. zigguratPost and Lintel, “hypostyle hall”

i.e. ParthenonRounded Arch Part of the ParthenonPediment, FriezeEntasisGreek Orders: Doric, Ionic, CorinthianColumn, Capital, Base

What if we could see the “amount” of influence on our (American) culture from the past...

Ishtar Gate, Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia’s history was marked by continual warfare and conquests. The major goal in architecture was the erection of mighty citadels to ensure the safety of temples and palaces.

In Mesopotamia (the area that is now modern day Iraq), cultures and cities developed around the rivers of the area—the Tigris and Euphrates. Different groups invaded, conquered, and ruled until they themselves were conquered. Some of the first cities arose in the southernmost region, called Sumer, in what is now Iraq. The Sumerians were the first to leave behind artifacts and words. The marks developed into a writing system called cuneiform.

Mesopotamia

Ziggurat: temple or shrine raised on a monumental, stepped base.

Nanna Ziggurat, Ur c. 21,000-2050 B.C.E.

Mesopotamia

Great Friday Mosque, Djenne, Mali, rebuilt 1907

•Simplest load bearing building method.

•Brick, stone and mud.

•Thick at bottom, thinner at top.

•Can only support small windows.

Stacking and Piling:

Great Friday Mosque, Djenne, Mali, rebuilt 1907

The Great Friday Mosque at Djenne in Mali is constructed of adobe and coated with mud plaster. This sculptural building shows the tapering and small windows characteristic of this construction. The protruding wooden poles serve to anchor the scaffolding that is erected every few years for restoring the plaster.

Stacking and Piling:

Great Friday Mosque, Djenne, Mali, rebuilt 1907

Stacking and Piling:

Relief (frontal view) Shallow sculpture

Low relief: (bas-relief) projects slightly as in coins and tombstones.

High relief: (haut-relief) projects by at least 1/2 of the depth.

King Assurbanipal on a Lion Hunt, c. 850 B.C.E.

King Assurbanipal on a Lion Hunt, c. 850 B.C.E.

Gravestone of a Woman with her Attendant,Greek, 100 BCE, Marble

Example of high relief sculpture.

The Great Sphinx, Giza, c. 2500 B.C.E..

Egypt

The history of Mesopotamia parallels its neighbor to the southwest: Egypt.Because of its location, deserts, and the Nile river, Egypt had less immigration and invasion. The main message of Egyptian art is CONTINUITY. The Sphinx is an example of an important characteristic in Egyptian art, the essence of stability, order, and endurance. The sphinx is 65 ft tall, with the body of a reclining lion and the head of a man, thought to be the Pharaoh Khafe.

The subtractive method begins with a block of solid material which will be carved away. Carving is a much more aggressive and complex process. From this block, the sculptor must envision a topographical image from all 4 sides. This is a very time consuming physical process. If too much is taken off, it usually cannot be added, especially when working with stone. For this reason, negative space, balance, and structure had to be considered in the planning stages.

Step pyramid, funerary complex of King Zoser, Saqqara, Egypt, c. 2630-2611 B.C.E. Limestone, 200' high.

Egypt Stacking and Piling

The Great Sphinx, Giza, c. 2500 B.C.E..

Egyptian kings ruled absolutely and enjoyed a semi-divine status. When a king died, it was believed he rejoined the gods and became fully divine. Preparations for this journey began during his lifetime and vast tombs or pyramids, seen in the background, were constructed and furnished with everything he would need in the afterlife.

Hatshepsut's memorial temple.

Egypt Post-and-Lintel Construction

Post-and-Lintel Construction

Model of the hypostyle hall, temple of Amon-Ra,

Karnak, Egypt,

Lintel

Posts

This configuration can support long horizontal beams at critical points with vertical posts to carry weight to the ground. Allows for buildings with larger and more open interior spaces.

Hypostyle Hall, Temple of Amon, Karnak, ca. 1220 BCE.

Egypt

Hypostyle Hall from the Greek for

“beneath columns”.

Egypt

Ancient Egyptians associated hypo-style halls with the primal swamp of creation, believed to represent the first mound of dry land at the dawn of the world.

Egyptian column types reflect the swamp plants of the creation myth.

Egypt

Palette of Narmer, c. 3100 B.C.E from Hierakonpolis, c. 3100 B.C.E. Slate, 25" high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

Egypt

The Palette of Narmer illustrates many characteristics of Egyptian art. The pose and placement (Hierarchical Order) indicate Narmer’s status. Narmer’s pose is typical of Egyptian two-dimensional art, with the lower body in profile, and the torso viewed frontally. The head is in profile, but the eye is frontal. In depicting an important personage, the artist shows each body part to its best advantage to ensure continuity in the after-life.

Egypt

Egypt

Akhenaten and His Family, c. 1345 B.C.E.

Sunken Relief: The outline is carved deeply into the surface and the figures are modeled from the surface down.

Egypt

Model depicting the counting of livestock, from the tomb of Meketre, Deir el-Bahri, Dynasty 11, 2134-1991 B.C.E.

Painted wood, length 5' 8". Egyptian Museum, Cairo

Their belief in the afterlife required that they take everything with them that they would need in the next life in the form of miniature models, mummified remains and full scale versions.

Photograph by the MMA Egyptian Expedition, showing the locations of KV 54. The tomb of Tutankhamun (KV 62) was not yet discovered.

Egypt

Egypt

Howard Carter and an assistant unwrapping the innermost of Tutankhamun's three nested coffins. Photography by the MMA Egyptian Expedition. 1922

Nefertiti, c. 1345 B.C.E. Burial Mask of Tutankhaman,c. 1325 B.C.E.

Egypt

King Sahure and a nome god, Old Kingdom, Dynasty 5, reign of Sahure, ca. 2458–2446 b.c.EgyptianGneiss

Monolith: Formal symmetry Static posesDurable

The Egyptians considered the duration of this sculpture important for immortality.

Egypt

Continuity, order and stability were the primary characteristics of their art and they represent the goals of Egyptian society.

Namely the organization of political, religious and social power around the pharaohs.

Hatshepsut, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Hatshepsut, ca. 1473–1458 b.c.Egyptian; From Deir el-Bahri, western ThebesIndurated limestone

Hatshepsut, New Kingdom, Dynasty 18, reign of Hatshepsut, ca. 1473–1458 b.c.Egyptian; From Deir el-Bahri, western Thebes Indurated limestone

Hatshepsut, the best known of several female rulers of Egypt, declared herself king during of the reign of her stepson Thutmose III. This lifesize statue shows her in the ceremonial attire of an Egyptian pharaoh, traditionally a man's role. In spite of the masculine dress, the statue has a distinctly feminine air, unlike most other representations of Hatshepsut as pharaoh. Even the kingly titles on the sides of the throne are feminized to read "Daughter of Re [the sun god]" and "Lady of the Two Lands [Upper and Lower Egypt]."

Egypt

King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen Khamerernebty2490–2472 B.C.E.pp. 247

Greece

1. Pre-Greek (2500 - 1200 B.C.E.)Cycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean

2. Archaic (1050 - 480 B.C.E)-Era of Growth

2. Classical (ca. 480–323 B.C.E.)-Era of Intellect and Idealism

3. Hellenism (323 - 31 B.C.E)-Era of Empire and Commerce

Eras of Greek culture.

Statuette of a Woman, Cycladic,c. 2600-2400 B.C.E.

The Cycladic culture was one of the earliest in the Aegean Sea. Their art is simplified, abstract, and consists mainly of nude female figures.

Pre-Greek: Cycladic

Head from the figure of a woman, ca. 2700–2500 b.c.; Early Cycladic I–IICycladic; Keros-Syros culture

Pre-Greek: Minoan

The Minoans were a peaceful society of traders. Their palaces and cities were largely unfortified and the residents enjoyed sport. This is a new phenomenon in the ancient world: sport for sport's sake, and parallels a number of other aspects of Minoan culture.

The most popular sport subjects in Minoan painting and sculpture are two sports in particular: boxing and bull-jumping.

Rhyton in the form of a bull's head, ca. 1450–1400 b.c.; Late Minoan IIMinoan; Greece, CreteTerracotta

Toreador Fresco, palace at Knossos, Minoan Culture. c. 1500 B.C.E.

Pre-Greek: Minoan

Bull and acrobat

MinoanDate: 1700-1450 BCE

Bull-jumping did not involve killing the bull, rather it was a test of both courage and agility. A bull would run at a jumper or line of jumpers; when it was close enough, the jumper would grab the bull's horns and either vault onto the bull's back or vault over the bull in a somersault and land on his or her feet on the other side of the bull.

Pre-Greek: Minoan

Mycenaean Rhyton, c. 1550 B.C.E.

Pre-Greek: MycenaeanThe Mycenaeans Powerful wealthy KingsKing = warlord.Cities were heavy fortresses

Mycenaean society was constantly geared for battle and invasion. The Mycenaeans built palaces and temples, but are noted for their elaborate burial customs and tombs.

Both the Minoans and the Mycenaeans form the past of writers like Homer.

Pre-Greek: Mycenaean

Gold death-mask, known as the ‘mask of Agamemnon’. Mycenae, Grave Circle A, Grave V, 16th cent. BC.

Chariot krater, first half of 13th century b.c.; Late Helladic IIIB:1MycenaeanTerracotta

“Krater” : Large decorative vases

One of the enduring forms of Greek art is the vase and pottery in general.

Pre-Greek: Mycenaean

Pre-Greek: Mycenaean

But the Greek world from 1150-900 B.C.E fell into a kind of “dark ages” where their societies were unorganized and their history unrecorded.

This was probably due to some kind of outside invasion by an as yet unknown people group.

Hence when Homer assembles the Iliad and the Odyssey around 700 B.C.E. he can only reference the memory of the earlier Mycenaean age which was some 500 years earlier.

The Greek “Dark Ages”

The Archaic Greeks borrowed the Monolithic sculptural form from contact with the Egyptians.

Egypt, Menkaure and Khamerernebty, c. 2460 B.C.E. Statue of a kouros (youth), ca. 590–580 b.c.; ArchaicGreek, AtticNaxian marble

Archaic Greek

Archaic GreekKouros: Anonymous young men or “youth.” Usually shown nude with the left leg striding forward and hands clenched at the side. They are believed to have been grave markers or dedications to a god.7th -5th century B.C.E.

Statue of a kouros (youth), ca. 590–580 b.c.; ArchaicGreek, AtticNaxian marble

Kore: Statue of a young girl wearing a pleated or draped fabric and veil is typical of Archaic korai.

Kore from the Cheramyes groupCirca 570-560 BCIsland of Samos, temple of Hera.Samos

Volute-krater (vase for mixing wine and water), early 6th century b.c.Attributed to SophilosGreek, AtticTerracotta

Archaic Greek

Classical Greece

Classical Greek art and architecture embodied what they believed to be the highest possible standard of quality, the best, purest, logical, and most beautiful.

Underpinning rationalism, the belief that we can make sense of the world with our minds, is a belief in the ability of humanity called humanism. For the Greeks this was not only an appreciation for the mind’s abilities, but also for the body’s through sport.

Panathenaic amphora, ca. 530 b.c.; ArchaicAttributed to the Euphiletos PainterGreek, Attic

Black-figure: The image is made by scratching away the black glaze, leaving the red of the clay visible.

Classical Greece

BERLIN PAINTER (attributed to)Attic Red-Figure Bell-KraterCirca 500-490 BC

Classical Greece

Red figure- Replaces Black-figure technique. Black glaze is painted around the open red (or unglazed )areas.

The Classical Figure in Sculpture

Kritios boy, 490 BCEArchaic Greek.

In their sculpture, as with their architecture, Greeks increasingly valued the experience of looking.

This combined with Greek humanism ushered in a new sense of naturalism; the copying of visual experience.

Contrapposto: Italian meaning opposite. The figure is posed with its weight on one leg and the other at rest.

Creates an opposition between shoulders and hips that enlivens the body.

Where strength and movement was balanced with harmony.

Roman Copy of Apoxyomenos, c. 320 B.C.E.

The Classical Figure in Sculpture

ContrappostoMonolithic

Roman Copy of Apoxyomenos, c. 320 B.C.E. Egypt, Menkaure and Khamerernebty, c. 2460 B.C.E.

Human Figure in Sculpture

Roman Copy of Apoxyomenos, c. 320 B.C.E.

Classical Greece

The Apoxyomenos depicts a young male who has just finished exercising and is cleaning himself off with olive oil. He is scraping the excess oil from his outstretched arm with a curved metal scraper, called a strigil* (now missing).

Scraper (strigil)GreekLate Classical or Early Hellenistic Periodabout 350–290 B.C.

Apollo Sauroctonus,Copy of Praxiteles,Roman work dating from the Imperial era, 1st or 2nd century AD(?), based on an original dating from c. 340 BC

Classical Greece

Sculpture “in the round”:

Freestanding work that can be viewed from any angle.

Riace Warrior. Ca. 450 BC. Bronze. Height: 6 feet, 6 inches.

Riace Warrior. Ca. 450 BC. Bronze. Height: 6 feet, 6 inches.

The male ideal of the High Classical style is evident in this bronze warrior discovered near Riace, Italy. Cast in bronze, this figure projects the supreme confidence and powerful athleticism of the hero. The left arm is raised to hold a shield and the right arm grasped a spear, both of which have been lost. Notice the torso’s contrapposto and animated S-curve, created by placing the figure’s weight on the right foot, which causes the pelvis and shoulders to tilt in opposite directions. For greater realism, the bronze face also contains glass-plate, bone, silver, and copper inlay.

The Riace bronzes were discovered August 16, 1972. The classical Greek statues were spotted partly buried in the sand by a snorkeler, Stefano Mariottini, about 300 meters off the cost of Riace, near Reggio Calabria, Italy.

Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos, c. 330 B.C.E

Classical Greece

The Classical Figure in Sculpture

Greek sport and the ideal body.

According to tradition, the most important athletic competitions were inaugurated in 776 B.C. at Olympia in the Peloponnesos The victors at all these games brought honor to themselves, their families, and their hometowns.

Events included footraces, the long jump, diskos and javelin throwing, wrestling, the pentathlon (a combination of these five events), boxing, the pankration (a combination of wrestling and boxing), horse races, and chariot races.

The Panhellenic games, the model for our Olympics, unified the Greek city-states in a common activity.

The Classical Figure in Sculpture

Panathenaic prize amphora, ca. 525–500 b.c.; black-figureAttributed to the Kleophrades PainterGreek, Attic

Depicted here is a pankration, a combination of boxing and wrestling, was to bring one's opponent to the ground.

Prize Vessel from the Athenian GamesGreek, Made in

Athens 363 -362 BCE

Victorious YouthGreek, 300-200 BCE,

Bronze

The traditional pose of a victorious athlete, a relaxed and confident youth crowns himself with an olive wreath. He may have carried palm branches, another attribute of victory, in his left hand.

This statue probably commemorated an athletic triumph at Olympia where the wreath was given as a prize. Hundreds of statues like this were erected in Greek sanctuaries.

Wreath, Greek, 300-100 BCE Gold.

Temple of Apollo at Corinth, Archaic GreekDoric order, 535 B.C.E.

Classical Greece

The Acropolis: [acros-“upper” + polis -“city”] A steep-sided hill supporting several temples, precincts, and other buildings.

Classical Greece

Greek Theatre

Our interest in the theater connects us directly to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Nearly every Greek and Roman city had an open-air theater. The theatron seats were arranged in tiers with a striking view of the surrounding landscape. Here the Greeks sat and watched the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and and later playwrights.

The Greek theater consisted of the...orchestra: the flat circular or semi-circular singing / dancing floor of the Chorus theatron: terraced bowl shaped seating area for viewers skene: a building that held backdrops, props and waiting actors.episkenion: the second story of the skene

Greek Theatre

Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon, Athens, c. 447 and 438 BCE.

Classical Greece

Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon, Athens, c. 447 and 438 BCE.

Classical Greece

During the 5th and 4th century B. C. E., Athens was a major city-state known for military strength as well as being a center of culture and art. This structure is meant to be viewed from the exterior, as it was the center for political and religious meetings for masses of people. It was highly decorated with high relief sculptures. The inner chamber once housed a monumental statue of the goddess Athena.

Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon, Athens, c. 447- 438 B.C.E.

Lintel

PostsEntasis

Classical Greece

The Parthenon is said to have no straight lines. As tall columns rise vertically, they produce an illusion of bending inward at the center. The Greeks adjusted these columns through the use of a bulge, known as entasis, so that that they appeared straight.

Classical Greece

Greek architects developed and codified three major architectural styles, knows as the Greek Orders.

Doric Ionic Corinthian

Column

Base

Capital

Entablature

Doric order: Archaic Greek order. “Fluted” (grooved) columns with capitals are composed of two parts consisting of a flat slab, the abacus, and a cushion-like slab known as the echinus.

Ionic order: More popular among Greeks in Asia Minor and in the Greek islands. Bases support the columns, which have more vertical flutes than those of the Doric order. Ionic capitals have two volutes (spirals) that rest atop a band of palm-leaf ornaments.

Corinthian order: A more elaborate style that was common in the Hellenistic and later Roman periods. Corinthian capitals are decorated with acanthus leaves, spirals, and palmettes.

Ionic capital, torus (foliated base), and parts of a fluted column shaft from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, 4th century b.c.eGreek, LydianMarble

The Greek orders

Pediment

Frieze

Architrave (or Lintel)

Entablature: Made up of the Frieze and Architrave

Reconstructed model of the Parthenon’s east pediment. left side.

The pediments were decorated with sculptural compositions inspired from the life of the goddess Athena. The east pediment depicted the birth of the goddess, who sprang from the head of her father, Zeus, before an assembly of the Olympian gods, while the west pediment showed Athena and Poseidon disputing for the possession of the city of Athens before the gods, heroes and mythical kings of Attica.

Reconstructed model of the Parthenon’s east pediment. right side.

Classical Greece

The Acropolis Museum

The “Elgin” Marbles

The Acropolis Museum

The “Elgin” Marbles

Warrior's head from the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia on Aegin.Greek, ca. 480 B.C.; marble, height 24 cm; Staatliche

Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich

Most Classical Greek sculptures were actually painted with bright color and patterning.

What you would have seen when you walked through an ancient city, cemetery, or sanctuary would have been colorful sculpture: painted marble, colorful bronze, gold and ivory cult images.

Most scholars haven't paid much attention to the light traces of pigment that remained on the surface of marble statues. One reason is that ancient artists used mineral-based paints with organic binding media that disintegrated over time. Also, as statues were later collected and displayed, paint remnants were likely lost during cleaning. And even after extensive visual and scientific analysis of the original sculptures scholars still don't know if the paint was applied in one or two coats, how finely the pigments were ground, or exactly which binding medium would have been used in each case--all elements that would affect the appearance of a finished piece.

Segment of the Aegina Pediment, Glypotek, Munich

Classical Greece

Horseman, West Parthenon frieze, Greek, 438-432 BCE British Museum

Classical Greece

Metope from the Parthenon, The Acropolis, Athens, Greece, around 440 BCE British Museum

Classical Greece

The “Elgin” MarblesThe British Museum

By 1800 only about half of the original sculptural decoration remained on the Parthenon. In 805 the British Lord Elgin, the ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, acting with the full knowledge and permission of the authorities, removed about half of the remaining sculptures from the building itself. Lord Elgin transported the sculptures back to Britain. These sculptures were acquired from Lord Elgin by the British Museum in 1816. Since then the sculptures have all been on display to the public in the British Museum, free of entry charge.

The Greek government wants the parts of the Parthenon returned to their country. Whether antiquities should be returned to the countries where they were found is one of the most urgent and controversial issues in the art world today.

For years the argument was that the marbles were safer in the British Museum. But in 2009 Greece built a state of the art museum in the shadow of the Parthenon to help hold the sculptures.

Maintaining that the acquisition of undocumented antiquities by museums encourages the looting of archaeological sites, countries such as Italy, Greece, Egypt, Turkey, and China have claimed ancient artifacts as state property, called for their return from museums around the world, and passed laws against their future export.

The “Elgin” Marbles

The Acropolis Museum. Athens, Greece$200 Million, built in 2009

The “Elgin” Marbles

“The new museum, however, does not alter the Trustees’ view that the sculptures are part of everyone’s shared heritage and transcend cultural boundaries.”

- The British Museum

“Further serious damage was caused in the early nineteenth century by Lord Elgin, who looted much of the temple's sculptural decoration and sold it to the British Museum.”-Greek Ministry of Culture

The “Elgin” Marbles

The “Elgin” Marbles

The Acropolis Museum proximity to the actual structure.

The Acropolis Museum interior with sculptures.

"Antiquities," Cuno argues, "are the cultural property of all humankind," "evidence of the world's ancient past and not that of a particular modern nation.

They comprise antiquity, and antiquity knows no borders."

The “Elgin” Marbles

James Cuno, Current director of the Getty Museum in Los AngelesFormer president and director of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Culture predates nationalism (which only really got going in the 18th century) and runs counter to it, Cuno argues. Nations may use cultural objects to build national identity and loyalty, but culture, by nature, is polyglot. Nationalism divides us and leads to violence; culture can unite us in our common human heritage.

The real argument over the acquisition of "un-provenanced" antiquities "is not what it appears to be," he writes. "It is not really between art museums and archeologists, about the protection of the archeological record from looting and illicit trafficking.... It is between museums and modern nation-states and their nationalist claims on that heritage."

The “Elgin” Marbles

Hellenism (Greek-like)

Hellenism.Between 334 and 323 B.C., Alexander the Great and his armies conquered much of the known world , creating an empire that stretched from Greece and Asia Minor through Egypt and the Persian empire in the Near East to India.

Hellenism.

This unprecedented contact with cultures far and wide exported Greek culture and its arts, and exposed Greek artistic styles to a host of new cultural influences.

Statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, Hellenistic, 3rd–2nd century b.c.Greek

Hellenism.

Hellenistic artists copied and adapted earlier styles, and also made great innovations.

Hellenistic sculpture was a dramatic change from peaceful and relaxed poses to the depiction of drama and movement.

•Figures writhing in different directions.•Strong use of diagonals.•Spiraling compositions.•Use of negative space.

In Hellenistic art, the “ideal” of the body in repose gets lost in the emotion of the “story” and the power of the action. Hence the body of Hellenistic sculpture is under stress.

Aphrodite of Melos (also called Venus de Milo), c. 150 B.C.E. Marble, height 6' 10". Musée du Louvre, Paris.

The Venus de Milo is actually thought to be a copy of a lost 5th century BCE work.

Because it combines the contrapposto of Classical Greek sculpture with the Hellenistic trait of spiral composition, elongated torso and its position in “the round”.

Hellenism.

Hellenism.

This sculpture portrays an event from Greek mythology, the Trojan Horse story.

The sea god, Poseidon, was angered with Troy, and sent serpents to strangle Laocoon, the priest who tried to reveal the trickery of the horse. We see the priest and sons entwined by the deadly snakes.

Laocoon(lay-auk-ah-wan)

Laocoon Group, 40–20 BCEVatican Museums, Sculptors: Athanadoros, Hagesander, PolydorosParian marble Height 208 cm; width 163 cm; depth 112 cm.

“Nike” aka Winged victory

The Winged Victory of Samothrace, also called the Nike of Samothrace, 300 B.C.E

Hellenism.

The winged goddess of Victory stood on the prow of a ship overlooking the Sanctuary of the Great Gods on the island of Samothrace that commemorated a naval victory in the early second century BCE.

The theatrical stance, vigorous movement, and billowing drapery of this Hellenistic sculpture are combined with references to the Classical period.

Statue of a wounded GalatianRoman Imperial copy (first-second century AD) after a Greek original

Hellenism.

This Gallic warrior (known to the Greeks as a Galatian) is badly wounded, although he is poised to fight back. These sculptures commemorated the victory of the Pergamene kings over the Galatians.

Dying Gaulc.230-220 BCE

Gaul Killing Himself and His Wife (sometimes called "The Galatian Suicide") Roman copy 2nd cent. CE, Hellenistic original, ca 230-20 BCE